frige  ration 


•SK 


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Deceived  ,  190*  . 


Accession  No.   87602        .    Class  No. 


i  ne 


is  tne  most  sirnpie,~  uuiduic   duu  eco- 
nomical of  ice  machines. 


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F.  W.   NIEHLINO,  strr»T. 


MACHINERY 


FOR 


REFRIGERATION 


BEING 


SUNDRY     OBSERVATIONS     WITH     REGARD    TO     THE     PRINCIPAL 
APPLIANCES    EMPLOYED     IN     ICE    MAKING    AND     REFRIG- 
ERATION,   AND    UPON    THE    LAWS    RELATING    TO 
THE     EXPANSION     AND     COMPRESSION     OF 
GASES.        PRINCIPALLY     FROM     AN 
AUSTRALIAN   STANDPOINT 


BY 

NORMAN   SELFE 

LATE  CHAIRMAN  OF  THE  BOARD  OF  TECHNICAL  EDUCATION,  NEW  SOUTH  WALES,  AUSTRALIA. 

PAST    PRESIDENT   ENGINEERING   ASSOCIATION  OF  NEW  SOUTH    WALES,  AUSTRALIA. 

MEMBER   OF   THE   INSTITUTE   MECHANICAL   ENGINEERS,  ENGLAND. 

MEMBER   OF  THE  INSTITUTE   CIVIL  ENGINEERS,  ENGLAND. 

HON.  MEMBER  SOUTHERN  ICE  EXCHANGE,  U.S.A. 

ETC.,  ETC. 

AUTHOR  OF   "COMPRESSED  AIR  AND  ITS  APPLICATIONS" 

ETC.,  ETC. 


H.   S.   RICH    &   CO. 
1900 


Copyrighted  1899-1900,  by  H.  S.  RICH  &   CO. 

ALL   RIGHTS   RESERVED. 


Press  of 

ICE  AND  REFRIGERATION* 
CHICAGO. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Among  the  many  marvelous  strides  which  the  nineteenth 
century  has  witnessed  in  connection  with  the  arts  and 
sciences,  those  which  have  been  made  in  the  commercial  pro- 
duction of  cold  hold  a  very  important  place.  The  evolution 
of  artificial  refrigeration  from  the  theoretical  and  experi- 
mental to  the  practical  stage  hardly  dates  back  forty  years,  and 
its  present  vast  proportions  have  only  been  approached  dur- 
ing the  last  quarter  of  the  century.  The  production  of  ice 
was  probably  the  chief  incentive  to  the  work  of  the  early 
inventors,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  preservation 
and  transportation  of  food  products,  and  the  requirements  of 
industries  connected  with  cold  storage,  are  largely  respon- 
sible for  the  remarkable  development  of  artificial  refrigera- 
tion in  later  days. 

The  mechanical  processes  carried  out  in  an  ordinary 
refrigerating  establishment  are,  when  compared  with  many 
others  in  which  machinery  is  employed,  exceedingly  simple, 
but  they  are  dependent  upon  principles  which  are  not  so  easy 
to  comprehend;  and  perhaps  no  branch  of  engineering  has 
been  less  understood  in  the  past,  by  those  who  use  machinery, 
than  that  which  is  connected  with  ice  making  and  refrigera- 
tion. The  only  books,  at  one  time,  which  threw  any  light  on 
the  subject,  dealt  with  it  simply  from  the  thermodynamic 
aspect,  and  for  their  due  comprehension  required  the  reader 
to  be  a  mathematician  rather  than  a  refrigerating  engineer. 
There  are  now  many  trade  catalogues,  issued  by  makers  of 
refrigerating  machinery,  which  give  useful  information,  both 


87602 


iv  INTRODUCTION. 

as  to  theory  and  practice,  and  some  are  of  exceeding-  merit  in 
the  scope  and  accuracy  of  the  information  which  they  furnish. 

The  establishment  of  a  journal  like  Ice  and  Refrigeration 
not  only  evidences  the  importance  of  the  refrigeration  busi- 
ness, but  it  forms  a  means  of  communication  between  refrig- 
erating engineers  all  over  the  world,  and  disseminates  the 
knowledge  of  every  improvement  to  the  five  quarters  of  the 
globe — five,  because  Australia,  where  it  is  largely  read,  is  not 
included  in  the  orthodox  four.  Apart  from  this,  the  pro- 
prietors of  that  journal  have  published  their  "Compend," 
which  to-day  is  the  rule  of  faith  to  thousands  of  persons  who 
have  charge  of,  or  are  interested  in,  refrigerating  machinery. 
More  recently  the  same  publishers  have  issued  another  book 
by  "The  Boy"  (Mr.  Skinkle),  and  there  are  a  number  of 
English  works  dealing  with  the  history  and  progress  of 
refrigeration,  all  supplying  information  under  one  or  more  of 
the  many  aspects  which  the  subject  presents. 

The  author  commenced  his  connection  with  refrigerating 
machinery  in  the  year  1858,  and  with  the  exception  of  the 
years  1884  and  1885,  when  he  studied  its  progress  and 
improvement  in  the  United  States  and  Europe,  he  has  been  in 
Australia  ever  since.  He  should  thus  look  at  American  and 
European  rival  refrigerating  machines  with  an  unprejudiced 
eye.  His  first  writings  on  the  subject  were  penned  in  the 
endeavor  to  do  justice  to  some  of  the  Australian  pioneers  in 
refrigeration,  such  as  Harrison,  Mort  and  Nicolle,  whose 
important  labors  seemed  to  be  ignored  in  American  and 
European  works.  Other  papers  by  him  have  since  then  been 
read  before  the  Royal  Society  of  New  South  Wales,  and  the 
Southern  Ice  Exchange  of  the  United  States,  in  connection 
with  the  same  subjects,  and  have  been  so  kindly  received 
outside  the  colony  that  he  has  now  been  induced  to  attempt 
to  write  a  whole  book. 

In  the  following  pages  the  reader   must  not   expect  to 


INTRODUCTION.  v 

find  anything"  new  from  the  theoretical  side.  First  principles 
never  alter,  and  there  are  many  books  available  for  those  who 
wish  to  dive  into  the  thermodynamic  principles  involved  in  the 
operation  of  the  machines  employed  for  artificial  refrigera- 
tion, but  it  is  believed  that  a  great  many  matters  relating-  to 
the  construction  and  practical  working1  of  such  machinery,  as 
well  as  to  the  distinctive  characteristics  of  different  refrig- 
erating systems,  are  now  presented,  either  in  a  new  shape,  or 
for  the  first  time.  To  the  average  ice  or  cold  storage  man 
who  wants  to  produce  the  greatest  amount  of  cold,  with  the 
least  primary  investment  of  capital,  the  smallest  cost  of 
maintenance,  and  the  lowest  working-  expenses,  this  little 
work  may  possibly  be  of  some  se-rvice;  and  if  the  author 
should  at  any  future  time  learn  that  brother  engineers — like 
himself,  more  practical  than  literary — have  been  helped  by 
what  follows  to  a  fuller  understanding  of  the  requirements 
and  possibilities  of  a  modern  refrigerating  plant,  it  will  give 
him  the  satisfaction  of  knowing  that  his  efforts  in  this  con- 
nection have  not  been  altogether  misapplied. 

No  KM  AN  SELFE. 
SYDNEY,  N.  S.  W.,  AUSTRALIA. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


PAGE. 


INTRODUCTION,   -  -  -          iii_v 

LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS,  ix-xv 

CHAPTER  I. 
HISTORICAL,  17-25 

CHAPTER  II. 
ON  HEAT  AND  COLD,   -  26-29 

CHAPTER  III. 

THE   PRACTICAL  WORK   OF  ARTIFICIAL  REFRIGERA- 
TION, 30-31 

CHAPTER  IV. 
COLD  AIR  MACHINES,    -  -  32-37 

CHAPTER  V. 

THE  USE  OF  GAS  WHICH  LIQUEFIES  UNDER  PRES- 
SURE, 38-40 

CHAPTER  VI. 

THE  LATENT  HEAT  OF    LIQUEFACTION  IN  ITS  AP- 
PLICATION TO  REFRIGERATION,     -  41-43 

CHAPTER  VII. 

WHY  AMMONIA  Is  So  LARGELY  USED  IN  REFRIGER- 
ATING MACHINES,    -  44-47 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE  ABSORPTION  SYSTEM,  48-53 

CHAPTER  IX. 

THE  COMPRESSION  SYSTEM  REVERTED  TO,  -  -        54-57 


viii  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  X. 

IN  THE  LIQUEFACTION  OF  A  GAS  THE  WORK  OF 
THE  COMPRESSOR  OR  PUMP  is  SUPPLEMENTED  BY 
THE  ACTION  OF  A  CONDENSER  OR  COOLER,  58-67 

CHAPTER  XL 

THE  REFRIGERATOR,     -  68-70 

CHAPTER  XII. 

THE  SURFACE  REQUIRED  FOR  EXCHANGE  OF  TEM- 
PER ATURES  IN  CONDENSERS  AND  REFRIGERATORS,  71-76 

CHAPTER   XIII. 

COCKS,  VALVES,  PIPES  AND  JOINTS,  77-83 

CHAPTER   XIV. 

THE  USE  OF  OIL  IN  REFRIGERATING  SYSTEMS,  84-93 

CHAPTER  XV. 

THE  STEAM  ENGINE  AND  THE  COMPRESSOR,  -       94-173 

CHAPTER  XVI. 
ON  THE  LAWS  RELATING  TO   THE   EXPANSION  AND 

COMPRESSION  OF  GASES,    -  -     174-203 

CHAPTER    XVII. 

STEAM     BOILERS     FOR     COLD     STORAGE     AND     ICE 

MAKING,      -  204-230 

CHAPTER    XVIII. 
ICE  PER  TON  OF  COAL,  -     231-251 

CHAPTER    XIX. 

PURE  DISTILLED  WATER  FOR  ICE  MAKING,  -     252-260 

CHAPTER    XX. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  AND  FINAL,   -  -     261-332 

APPENDIX    I. 

TABLES,  -     333-350 

APPENDIX    II. 
REFERENCES   TO    LITERATURE    ON    REFRIGERATION 

AND  ALLIED  SUBJECTS,      -  -     351-358 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


FIG. 


1.  Perkins'  patent,  1834,  18 

2.  Harrison's  ether  machine,  table  pattern,  1860,  -      20 

3.  Harrison's  ether  machine,  horizontal  pattern,  1861, 

six  views,  22 

4.  Australian  cold  air  machine  (by  the  author),  1881,  -      23 

5.  Diagram  illustrating-  compression  and  expansion  of 

air,  32 

6.  Haslam  cold  air  machine,  -      34 

7.  Diagram  of  compound  tandem  cold  air  machine,  35 

8.  Combined  air  and  ether  machine  (design),  1880,  36 

9.  Diagram  of  vapor  tensions,  40 

10.  Latent  heat  diagram,  -      42 

11.  Carbonic  acid  machine,  Hall's  patent,      -  45 

12.  Section  of  carbonic  acid  machine,       -  46 

13.  Nicolle's  cold  storage  for  shipboard,  1867,  49 

14.  Diagrammatic  plan  of  absorption  plant,  -       50 

15.  English  absorption  machine,  51 

16.  Am moniacal  liquor  pumps  (Australian), 

17.  A  modern  compressor  and  ice  making  plant, 

18.  Submerged  condenser  (English  pattern),  -       59 

19.  Atmospheric  condenser  (Frick  Co.  pattern),     -  60 

20.  De  La  Vergne  general  arrangement,  with  special 

condenser,  61 

21.  Double  submerged  condenser  (right  way),  -      62 

22.  Double  submerged  condenser  (wrong  way),      -  63 

23.  Two-story  atmospheric  condenser,  Australian,  65 

24.  Condensers   for   steam   and   ammonia,   with  water 

cooling  tower,  -      66 

25.  Ice  box  and  expansion  valve,  69 

26.  Eclipse  expansion  valve,  -      77 

27.  De  La  Vergne  expansion  cock,     -  77 

28.  Expansion  valve,  with  long  taper,      -  -      77 

29.  Solid  steel  manifold  valve,  78 

30.  Solid  steel  manifold  valve,  with  by-pass,       -  -      79 


x  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FIG.  PAGE. 

31.  Double  or  return  bend  of  cast  metal  with  gland  and 

bolts,  -      79 

32.  Double   or  return  bend  screwed  on   the  pipe  with 

gland,  79 

33.  Straight  coupling-,  with  double  flanges,  and  double 

glands,  -      79 

34.  Hudson  Brothers'  patent  ammonia   joint  (Austra- 

lian), 80 

35.  Hudson  Brothers'  patent  ammonia   joint  (Austra- 

lian).   Another  view,  -  80 

36.  Single  bends,  with  bolted  glands,  and  screwed  pipe,  80 

37.  Auldjo's  patent  joints  for  ammonia  pipes,  -  80 

38.  Auldjo's  patent  joints  for  ammonia  pipes,  80 

39.  Auldjo's  patent  joints  for  ammonia  pipes,  -  80 

40.  Boyle  joint   (Chicago),  81 

41.  "Tight"  joint    (Patent),  -  81 

42.  Old  Australian  ammonia  pipe  joint,  with  tongued 

and    grooved    flanges    screwed   and   soldered   to 
pipes  (Nicolle),  81 

43.  Same  screwed  and  soldered  to  pipes  (Nicolle),       -       81 

44.  Valves  and  lantern  bush  of  horizontal  double-acting 

compressor,  86 

45.  Hand  oil  pump,  and  lantern  bushes  to  stuffing-box,  86 

46.  Lever  oil  pump  with  glass  body,  87 

47.  Oil  interceptor  for  piston  rod,  -  88 

48.  Oil  separator  with  baffles,  89 

49.  Oil  separator  with  wire  screen,  -  90 

50.  Liquid  ammonia  receiver,  with  welded  end,       -  91 

51.  Liquid  ammonia  receiver,  with  cast  solid  end,         -  91 

52.  Dirt  interceptor,  with  gauze  wire  screen,  92 

53.  Five  diagrams  illustrating  loss  by  clearance,  -  98 

54.  Compressor  and  engine  designed  in  1881   (Austra- 

lian), 99 

55.  Plan  of  same,  -    100 

56.  Case  compressor  for  ammonia.     American,       -  100 

57.  Westinghouse  compressor  for  ammonia.  American,  101 

58.  Antarctic   single-acting   compressor   for  ammonia. 

Australian,  102 

59.  Hercules  compressor  for  ammonia.     American,      -    104 

60.  Auldjo  compressor  for  ammonia.     Australian,  104 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS.  xi 

FIG.  PAGE 

61.  Antarctic  compound  compressor  for  ammonia.  Aus- 

tralian, -    104 

62.  De  La  Vergne  single-acting-  compressor  for  ammo- 

nia.    American,  105 

63.  De   La   Verg-ne  double-acting  compressor  for  am- 

monia.    American,  -    105 

64.  Frick     single-acting-     compressor     for     ammonia. 

American,  106 

65.  Consolidated  sing-le-acting  compressor  for  ammonia. 

American,      -  -    107 

66.  York  compound  compressor  for  ammonia.    Ameri- 

can, 108 

67.  Lawrence    horizontal     compressor    for    ammonia. 

English,  -    112 

68.  Selfe's  single-acting-compressor  for-ammonia  (1880). 

Australian,  -      114 

69.  Selfe's  compound  compressor  for  ammonia.     Aus- 

tralian, 114 

70.  Perspective  of  York  machine,  -      115 

71.  Linde  machine  plan,  116 

72.  Hercules  beam  diagram,  -      116 

73.  Plan  of  Hercules  beam  diagram,  116 

74.  Card  from  oil  injected  compressor,  -      118 

75.  Straight-line  air  compressor,  general  view,  -  119 

76.  Pair  of  cards  from  steam  and  compressor  cylinders 

of  Fig.  75,  119 

77.  Pair  of  cards    from   Corliss   engine  and  ammonia 


compressor 


-      120 

78.  Elevation  of  Frick  machine,  125 

79.  Elevation  of  De  La  Vergne  machine,  -      126 

80.  Horizontal  engine   and  two  vertical   compressors, 

diagram  of  elevation,  127 

81.  Plan  of  engine,  two  cranks  and  one  fly-wheel,  De  La 

Vergne  pattern,  -      128 

82.  Plan  of  engine,  two  cranks  and  one  fly-wheel,  Frick 

pattern, 

83.  Plan  of  engine,  three  cranks  and  inside  fly-wheels,     129 

84.  Plan  of  engine,  three  cranks  and  outside  flv-wheels,  130 

85.  Plan  of  engine,  straight  shaft  and  discs,     -  -      130 

86.  Vertical  engine  and  two  vertical  compressors,  131 


xii  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FIG.  PAGE. 

87.  David  Boyle's  machine,  general  view  (old  style),         132 

88.  Boyle  machine,  general  view  (modern  pattern),  133 

89.  Vertical  engine  and  two  vertical  compressors  with 

outside  fly-wheels,  134 

90.  Cards  from  same  engine  and  compressor  as  Fig.  74, 

but  arranged  at  right  angles,  -      135 

91.  Small  dairy  machine,  one  engine,  one  single-acting 

compressor,  136 

92.  Diagrams  from  machine,  as  Fig.  91,  with  cranks  in 

line,  -      137 

93.  Diagrams  from  machine,  as  Fig.  91, with  cranks  at 

right  angles  to  one  another,    -  137 

94.  Graphic  method  of  ascertaining  the  resolution  of 

forces  in  a  compressor,      -  -      138 

Perspective    view   Antarctic    machine,    beam    pat- 
tern, 10-ton,        -  142 

95.  Longitudinal  section  of  same,  -      143 

96.  Diagrams  showing  work  of   engine  and  resistance 

of  compressors,  as  Fig.  95,      -  144 

97.  Geared  compressor,  Pulsometer  company  (England),  145 

98.  Diagram  of    work   with   single-acting   belted    com- 

pressor, 148 

99.  Diagram  of  work  with    double-acting  belted   com- 

pressor, -      149 

100.  Belted  single  compressor  and  condenser  combined,   150 

101.  Belted  double  compressor,  -      152 

102.  Belted  Antarctic  compressor,  enclosed  type  of  com- 

pound compressor,  153 

103.  Belted  Antarctic  compressor,  in  perspective,       -      154 

104.  English  Kilbourn  machine  for  shipboard  (enclosed 

type),     -  155 

105.  Boiler,  compressor  and  condenser,  all  on  one  foun- 

dation,   -  157 

106.  Linde  compound  arrangement,  -    160 

107.  Antarctic  compound,  horizontal  pattern,  160 

108.  Antarctic  compound,  section  of  cylinders,  -    162 

109.  110,   111,  112.     Diagrams  illustrating  the  compara- 

tive strains  on  the  piston  rods  of  a  compressor 
performing  the  same  work  when  single-acting, 
when  double-acting,  and  compound,  165, 166, 167 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS.  xiii 

FIG.  PAGE. 

113,  114.     Actual  low  pressure  and  hig-h  pressure  indi- 
cator cards  from  a  compound  compressor,     -  168 

115.  Diagram  from  the  two  cards,  113  and  114,  to  a  uni- 

form scale,  -    170 

116.  Diagram  of  belt  strains  with  machine,  Fig-.  100,  171 

117.  Diagram  of  belt  strains  with  machine,  Fig.  101,  172 

118.  Cylinder   and  piston  to  illustrate  the   relation  of 

temperature,  volume  and  pressure  in  gases,  183 

119.  Diagram  of  isothermal  compression,      -  187 

120.  Diagram  illustrating  accession  of  heat  and  increase 

of  pressure  by  compression,  193 

121.  Diagram  of  adiabatic  compression,  -    196 

122.  Water  tube  with  scale  inside,      -  206 

123.  Ordinary  boiler  tube  with  external  scale,    -  -    206 

124.  Colonial  boiler,  Australian  pattern,  209 

125.  Multitubular  boiler  with  regenerative  setting,  -    210 

126.  Plan  of  same,  210 

127.  Front  elevation  of  same,  -    211 

128.  Transverse  section  of  same,       -  211 

129.  Sections  of  strengthened  furnaces  or  flues,  -    214 

130.  Cornish  boiler  front  with  automatic  stoker,      -  215 

131.  Longitudinal  section  of  Lancashire  boiler,  -    217 

132.  Front  elevation  of  Lancashire  boiler,  218 

133.  Section  of  Galloway  boiler,  -    219 

134.  Cornish  tubular  boiler,  with  regenerative  setting,     220 

135.  Plan  of  tubular  boiler,  -    221 

136.  Front  elevation  of  tubular  boiler,  223 

137.  Cross-section  of  tubular  boiler,  -    223 

138.  Locomotive  type  of  boiler  for  fixed  service,    -  224 

139.  Bjornstad's  patent  blow-off  cock,      -  -    225 

140.  Section  of  same,    - 

141.  Diagram,  thermal  efficiency  of  steam  engines,  -    229 

142.  Diagram,    horse     power    of    compressor    for  two 

extremes  of  climate,     -  239 

143.  Ice  factory  making  distilled  water  from  the  engine 

exhaust,  -    240 

144.  Exhaust  steam  feed  heater  for  very  bad  water,  by 

the  author,  244 

145.  Plan  of  same  showing  exhaust  and  feed  branches,    245 


xiv  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FIG.  PAGE. 

146.  Live  steam  feed  water  heater  for  the   deposit  of 

impurities,    -                                                                   -  246 

147.  Plan  of  same,        -  246 

148.  Can    filler   with   sliding-    float   to   close    automatic 

valve,                                                                                -  250 

149.  Can    filler     floating-    bodily     to     close     automatic 

valve,       -  250 

150.  Can  filler   with   telescope    extension  and   float  to 

close  cock,    -                                                                -  250 

151.  Ice    factory     with     triple     effect     distilled    water 

plant,      -  252 

152.  Illustration  of  heat  transfers  in  triple-eif ect  plant,  256 

153.  Small    sextuple-effect    distilling-    plant    for    pure 

water,                                                                               -  259 

154.  Diagram  Vog-t  absorption  machine,       -  262 

155.  Generator  or  still,  Vog-t  absorption  plant,  -             -  263 

156.  Equalizer  or  exchanger,  Vogt  absorption  plant,  264 

157.  Diagram  Ball  absorption  machine,    -                          -  266 

158.  Cochran  Co.'s  carbonic  anhydride  machine,     -  268 

159.  Kroeschell  Bros.' carbonic  acid  machine,    -             -  269 

160.  Triplex     ammonia     condenser,    Vogt    absorption 

machine,  270 

161.  Ball  ammonia  condenser,                                                -  271 

162.  Frick  Co.'s  atmospheric  ammonia  condenser,  272 

163.  Fred  W.  Wolf  Co.'s  atmospheric  ammonia  conden- 

ser,   -                                                                               -  273 

164.  Westerlin  &  Campbell's  double-pipe  condenser,  274 

165.  Ball  discharge  valve,                                                       -  277 

166.  Fred  W.  Wolf  Co.'s  ammonia  valve,      -  277 

167.  Frick  Co.'s  ammonia  valve,  -                                       -  278 

168.  Frick  Co.'s  exhibit  National   Export   Exposition, 

Philadelphia,  1899,  279 

169.  Frick  Co.'s  ammonia  compressor  cylinder,             -  280 

170.  Section  Frick  Co.'s  ammonia  compressor  cylinder,  281 

171.  York  Co.'s  mammoth  machine,                                    -  282 

172.  Section  York  compressor,  283 

173.  Penney's  double-acting  compressor,                         -  284 

174.  Latest  Remington  machine,  284 

175.  Section  Remington  machine,                                        -  285 

176.  Linde  machine,  American  type,                            -  286 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS.  xv 

FIG.  PAGE. 

177.  Same,  tangye  frame,  287 

178.  Linde  compressor  section,  American  type,  -    288 

179.  Vilter  type,  ammonia  compressor,  290 

180.  Section  same,  -•  292 

181.  Triumph  ice  machine,      -  294 

182.  Section  same,  -    295 

183.  Hercules  machine  in  New  South  Wales.  Fresh 

Food  and  Ice  Co.'s  works,  Sydney,     -  296 

184.  Same,  latest  design,    -  -    297 

185.  Same,  steamship  pattern,  297 

186.  Ball  compression  machine,    -  -    298 

187.  Buffalo  Refrigerating- Machine  Co.'s  compressor,      300 

188.  Section  same,  -    301 

189.  Boyle  compressor  cylinder,  303 

190.  Boyle  single-acting-  machine  with  vertical  engine,      304 

191.  Same,  with  horizontal  engine,      -  305 

192.  Arctic  compression  machine,  1879,  -    306 

193.  Section  same,  1900,  307 

194.  Section  Case  compressor  cylinder,  1  -    309 

195.  Barber  compression  machine,     --'  310 

196.  Challoner  triple  cylinder  single-acting  compressor,  312 

197.  Section  same,  313 

198.  End  view,  same,  -    314 

199.  Ideal  refrigerating  machine  section,      -  315 

200.  Diagram  illustrating  toggle-joint  motion  in  same,     316 

201.  Vulcan  compressor,  section,       -  317 

202.  Vulcan  compressor,  class  "A,"  -    318 

203.  Same,  class  "B,"  -  319 

204.  Stallman  compressor,  -    321 

205.  Cross-section  same, 

206.  Water  tube  boiler  " Premier,"  -    324 

207.  Fire  tube  affected  by  soot  and  dirt,       -  325 

208.  Water  tube,  same,      -  -    325 

209.  Evaporator   for  water  heavily  charged  with  min- 

erals,      -  326 

210.  Scotch  boiler,  end  elevation,  -    326 

211.  Same,  section,  326 

212.  Munroe  water  tube  boiler,     - 

213.  Same,  vertical  type,  329 


CHAPTER  I. 

HISTORICAL. 

Over  300  years  are  supposed  to  have  elapsed  since  it  was 
first  discovered  that  artificial  cold  is  produced  by  the  chemi- 
cal action  which  takes  place  when  certain  salts  are  dissolved, 
but  it  is  not  known  how  far  back  the  system  of  making-  ice 
has  been  practiced  which  is  still  in  use  in  India,  where  shal- 
low trays  of  porous  material  are  filled  with  water  and  exposed 
to  the  nig-ht  air,  so  that  the  heat  may  be  abstracted  by  the 
natural  evaporation  which  takes  place.  The  use  of  frigx>rific 
mixtures  for  the  abstraction  of  heat  (many  forms  of  which 
are  still  set  out  in  works  on  chemistry)  was  known  as  far 
back  as  the  year  1607,  and  the  most  common  combination,  that 
of  ice  and  salt  (which  is  said  to  have  been  used  by  Fahrenheit 
in  1762,  when  he  placed  the  freezing-  point  of  water  at  32°  as 
the  limit  of  neg-ative  temperature),  is  still  in  every  day  use 
for  such  purposes  as  ice  cream  freezing-. 

The  production  of  cold  by  what  may  be  termed  mechani- 
cal means  (that  is  by  the  use  of  a  refrig-erating-  machine  as 
distinguished  from  chemical  action)  is  of  much  more  recent 
date.  Dr.  Cullen  is  said  to  have  made  a  machine  for  evapo- 
rating- water  under  a  vacuum  in  1755,  and  Lavoisier  experi- 
mented with  ether  in  France,  but  the  next  important  steps 
appear  to  come  well  into  the  present  century.  In  the  year 
1810  Leslie  experimented  with  a  machine  using-  sulphuric 
acid  and  water.  In  1824  a  machine  was  patented  by  Vallance, 
who  probably  got  his  idea  from  the  evaporative  system  so  long" 
used  in  India.  Under  this  patent,  dry  air  was  circulated  over 
shallow  trays  of  water  when  evaporation  took  place  and  heat 
was  abstracted. 

In  1858  Mr.  Georg-e  Bevan  Sloper  patented  a  similar 
system  in  New  South  Wales.*  Under  this  invention  the 
water  to  be  frozen  was  contained  in  canvas  bag's,  so  that  the 

*N.  S.  W.  L.  R.t  No.  14,  1858. 

(2) 


18 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


whole  surfaces  of  such  vessels  were  exposed  to  the  evapora- 
tive effect  of  the  surrounding-  air  as  well  as  the  surface  of 
the  water  itself.  The  machine  to  work  this  process  was 
designed  by  the  author  to  carry  out  the  ideas  of  the  patentee 
just  forty-one  years  ago.  It  was  constructed  in  Sydney  by 
Messrs.  P.  N.  Russell  &  Co.,  then  the  leading-  engineering 
firm  in  Australia,  and  tried  in  Margaret  street,  Sydney.  No 
commercial  success,  however,  did  or  could  attend  any  such 
system  of  producing-  artificial  cold,  owing  to  the  excessive 


r?:^^^*--^™^-1^  <^' •'•^-•^?^^:%^ 

FIG.  1. — JACOB  PERKINS'  ICE  MACHINE,  PATENTED  IN  1834. 

amount  of  power  required  to  produce  a  given  result;  and  in 
this  particular  case,  as  the  air  delivered  into  the  chamber 
under  partial  vacuum  was  not  made  to  perform  work  on  its 
way  from  the  atmosphere,  it  did  not  part  with  the  equivalent 
heat  beforehand,  and  therefore  did  not  reduce  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  water,  as  it  might  have  been  made  to  do,  had  the 
knowledge  of  thermodynamic  laws  at  that  time  been  as  widely 
extended  as  it  is  now. 

In  1834  Hagen  used  the  volatile  spirit  of  caoutchouc,  and 
in  the  same  year  Jacob  Perkins,  of  London,  constructed  what 
appears  to  have  been  the  first  ice  making  machine  which 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION,  19 

really  worked  successfully  with  a  volatile  liquid.  In  this 
machine  of  Perkins'  ether  was  vaporized  and  expanded 
under  the  reduced  pressure  maintained  by  the  suction  of  a 
pump;  and  the  heat  required  for  such  vaporization  was 
abstracted  from  the  substance  to  be  cooled.  The  resulting- 
vapor  was  then  compressed  by  the  same  pump  into  a  vessel 
cooled  by  water,  until  under  the  influence  of  the  increased 
pressure  the  vapor  parting-  with  heat  to  the  cooling-  water 
ag-ain  condensed  to  a  liquid,  and  this  liquefied  medium  was 
then  ready  to  be  evaporated  and  expanded  over  ag-ain. 

Fig-.  1  is  taken  from  Jacob  Perkins'  English  patent,  No. 
6,662,  of  Aug-ust,  1834,  and  shows  clearly  that  his  invention 
included  the  four  principal  features  still  in  use  in  all  modern 
compression  systems,  viz.:  The  evaporator  (1),  the  com- 
pressor (2),  the  condenser  (3),  and  the  expansion  or  regu- 
lating- valve  (4)  between  the  condenser  and  the  evaporator. 

Althoug-h  his  machine  was  the  forerunner  of  all  the  com- 
pression systems  of  the  present  day,  Perkins  does  not  appear 
to  have  had  any  more  success  in  introducing-  it  for  commer- 
cial uses  than  Vallance  had.  Dr.  Gorrie,  in  1845,  seems  to 
have  taken  the  steps  which  led  to  the  invention  of  the  cold  air 
machine,  with  which  the  names  of  Windhausen,  Bell,  Cole- 
man,  Haslam,  Lig-htfoot,  Hall,  Giffard  and  others  are  asso- 
ciated, and  which  were  the  first  class  of  machines  that  were 
successful  in  carrying-  meat  from  Australia  to  Europe.  In 
1850  Carre  invented  the  ammonia  absorption  process. 
Between  the  years  1850  and  1860,  Professor  Twining-  in 
America,  and  Mr.  James  Harrison,  of  Geelong-,  in  Australia, 
devoted  themselves  to  the  improvement  of  Perkins'  ether 
machine,  probably  without  either  inventor  knowing-  what  the 
other  was  doing-,  as  there  was  not  much  communication 
between  the  two  countries  in  those  days.  Twining-  is  said  to 
have  had  a  machine  at  work  between  1855  and  1857  in  the 
state  of  Ohio,  and  Harrison,  in  the  year  1855,  was  at  work  in 
Victoria  when  he  actually  produced  ice  with  fish  frozen  in  the 
block.  In  the  year  1859  the  Harrison  machines  were  intro- 
duced into  New  South  Wales,  and  manufactured  by  Messrs. 
P.  N.  Russell  &  Co.;  the  author,  who  at  that  time  was  in  the 
drawing-  office  of  the  firm,  was  connected  with  this  work 
from  its  initiation. 


20 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


FIG.  2. — HARRISON'S  ETHER  MACHINK — TABLE  PATTERN.     1859. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  21 

The  original  drawing-  of  these  machines  is  now  in  his  pos- 
session, and  Fig-.  2  is  a  reproduction  from  it.  As  will  be  seen 
from  the  fig-ure,  they  were  made  as  a  double-table  engine  with 
four  slide  valves  to  the  ether  pump,  a  separate  inlet  and  outlet 
valve  on  the  top  and  bottom  covers  being-  worked  by  cams 
and  an  eccentric.  One  of  them,  when  completed,  was  set  to 
work  at  the  rear  of  the  Royal  hotel,  Georg-e  street,  Sydney,  and 
supplied  ice  to  a  reg-ular  list  of  customers;  another  and  simi- 
lar machine  was  sent  to  Melbourne. 

In  the  same  year  (1860)  P.  N.  Russell  &  Co.  made  more 
Harrison  machines  to  a  horizontal  design  prepared  by  the 
author,  who  was  then  their  chief  draftsman.  These  worked 
for  many  years  in  New  South  Wales  and  Victoria,  and  were 
illustrated  in  Ice  and  Refrigeration  for  February,  1895.  A 
large  double-cylinder  machine,  desig-ned  by  the  author  also  in 

1861,  is  shown  by  Fig-.  3,  on  the  following-  pag-e. 

Messrs.  Siebe,  of  London,  had  introduced  the  Harrison 
into  Eng-land  about  this  time,  and  it  is  g-enerally  admitted  in 
both  America  and  Eng-land  that  the  very  first  ice  machine 
ever  adopted  successfully  for  manufacturing-  purposes  was 
one  of  Harrison's  Australian  ether  machines,  applied  to  the 
extraction  of  paraffine  from  shale-oil  in  1861.  The  Engi- 
neer for  April  12,  1861,  has  an  illustration  of  Harrison's 
machine  as  made  by  Siebe. 

Dr.  Kirk  invented  a  sort  of  regenerative  air  machine  in 

1862,  which  was  also  used  for  the  cooling  of  paraffine  oil  in 
Scotland.     From  the  years  1861  to  1870  Mr.  E.  D.  Nicolle,  of 
Sydney,  worked  at  the  development  of  the  ammonia  absorp- 
tion system,  first  introduced  into  France  by  Carre,  the  latter 
years  in  conjunction  with  the  late  Mr.  T.  S.  Mort.    In  1863-64 
he  made  a  pump  to  compress  anhydrous  ammonia  to  the 
liquid  condition,  which  proved  tight  at  30  atmospheres.     He, 
however,    considered    the   absorption   system  as   the   more 
economical  in  fuel,  and  his  machines  at  Darlinghurst  quite 
supplanted   the   Harrison   ether   machine  in  George  street. 
Many  thousands  of  pounds  were  spent  by  Mr.  Mort  in  experi- 
ments not  only  with  the  ordinary  absorption  system  (many 
practical  improvements  in  which  were  patented),   but  on  a 
compressed  air  system,  L.  R.,No.  181,  of  1868, on  an  absorption 
or  "affinity"  system  operated  by  a  pump,  L.  R.,  216,  of  1869 


22 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  23 

(see  Ice  and  Refrigeration,  April,  1899,  page  298),  and  also  on 
a  system  of  using-  nitrate  of  ammonia,  which  was  fitted  up  in 
the  ship  Xortham,  all  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Nicolle. 


FIG.  4.— COLD   AIR    MACHINE,    WITH    COMPOUND    EXPANSION. 


The  first  practical  compression  machine  designed  in 
New  South  Wales,  for  the  use  of  anhydrous  ammonia  as  ji 
refrigerating  medium,  was  patented  by  the  author  (No.  887, 
of  1880),  and  was  called  the  "Colonial  Freezing  Machine."  It 


24  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

embodied  many  devices  which  are  now  in  general  use.  (See 
Fig-.  68.)  In  1885  the  late  Mr.  W.  G.  Lock,  chief  engineer  to 
the  Fresh  Food  and  Ice  Co.,  of  Sydney,  patented  a  compound 
compressor  for  ammonia  ( L.  R.,  No.  1,729).  This  consisted  of 
two  single-acting  high  and  low  pressure  pumps,  side  by  side, 
very  similar  to  the  machines  now  being-  made  by  the  York 
Manufacturing-  Co.,  of  York,  Pa.,  U.  S.  A.  In  1881  the  author 
designed  the  compressed  air  machine  illustrated  by  Fig-.  4 
fora  bacon  curing-  business  in  a  country  district  where  there 
were  only  untrained  men  to  work  it  and  water  was  very 
scarce.  Special  condensers  were  adopted,  and  the  water  was 
used  over  and  over  ag-ain,  less  the  waste  by  evaporation. 

This  machine  has  worked  successfully  up  to  the  present 
time  and,  though  recently  supplemented  by  an  ammonia  ma- 
chine, will  still  deliver  air  at  50°  below  zero  F. 

As  will  be  noted  from  the  illustration,  the  expansion  is 
compounded  and,  although  the  high  and  low  pressure  valves 
are  worked  from  one  eccentric,  thev  are  connected  to  separate 
blocks  in  a  double  link  motion  so  as  to  allow  for  different 
grades  of  expansion  being  adjusted  to  each.  By  this  means 
the  temperature  of  the  intermediate  chamber  in  the  sole 
plate  can  be  so  regulated  as  to  secure  the  deposition  of  mois- 
ture there,  without  affecting  the  cut-off  and  expansion  in  the 
other  cylinder. 

Great  numbers  of  patents  have  since  been  issued  in 
New  South  Wales  to  local  engineers  for  compressors  of  more 
or  less  originality,  and  for  other  details  of  refrigerating 
machinery,  and  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  Mr.  J.  D. 
Postle,  by  his  New  South  Wales  patent,  No.  180,  of  August 
24,  1868,  was  one  of  the  first  persons  in  the  world  to  under- 
stand and  patent  the  use  of  an  expansion  cylinder  in  a  cold 
air  machine.  By  this  means  some  of  the  heat  held  by  the  air 
is  converted  into  work,  and  a  lower  temperature  is  produced. 
It  will  be  seen  from  this  short  account  that  New  South  Wales 
has  in  the  past  done  a  large  share  of  the  work  by  which  the 
refrigerating  machinery  of  the  world  has  been  brought  to  its 
present  perfection. 

It  is  probable  that  in  the  United  States  the  development 
of  the  ice  machine  has  been  due  more  to  its  use  in  the  brew- 
ery and  to  the  national  taste  for  iced  water  than  to  other 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  25 

applications,  and  that  in  New  South  Wales  the  idea  of  freez- 
ing- food  products  for  export,  first  suggested  in  1860  by  the 
late  Aug-ustus  Morris — when  he  offered  to  contribute  ,£1,000 
toward  the  experiment  of  sending-  frozen  meat  to  England — 
was  the  main  factor  which  induced  the  late  Mr.  T.  S.  Mort 
to  devote  his  energies,  and  probably  a  quarter  of  a  million 
pounds  sterling-,  toward  the  economic  production  of  arti- 
ficial cold.  For  more  particulars  as  to  Mr.  Mort's  great 
work  the  author  would  refer  those  interested  to  an  article  he 
contributed  to  Ice  and  Refrigeration  for  Aug-ust,  1895. 


26  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


CHAPTER    II. 

ON   HEAT  AND   COLD. 

The  words  u  hot  "  and  "  cold  "  taken  by  themselves  con- 
vey no  definite  ideas  of  temperature;  they  are  merely  relative 
terms.  To  any  one  coming  in  from  a  snow  storm,  water  at 
60°  would  feel  warm,  but  to  a  person  in  a  steamer's  stoke- 
hold, at  120°  or  more,  the  very  same  water  might  feel  refresh- 
ingly cool.  If  sentient  being's  exist  under  the  atmosphere  of 
the  sun,  then  the  temperature  of  molten  iron  and  g^old,  or  the 
great  heat — to  us — of  2,000°,  may  be,  relatively,  colder  to 
them  than  we  find  ice  cream  in  this  world.  We  really  know 
nothing-  about  a  limit  to  possible  heat,  that  is  temperature  in 
the  direction  of  its  increase,  althoug-h  we  may  admit  that 
there  is  a  condition  of  thing's  in  the  universe  where  all  matter 
exists  as  vapor.  We  have,  however,  throug-h  modern 
research,  the  knowledge  that  there  is  a  limit  to  the  dis- 
appearance of  heat,  and  that  a  condition  is  possible  below 
which  there  could  be  no  further  reduction  of  temperature; 
and,  as  the  production  of  cold  means  the  abstraction  of  heat, 
at  this  theoretical  foundationer  zero  point  all  heat  must  have 
disappeared  and  absolute  cold  be  reached. 

From  the  thermometric  base  thus  set  up  the  properties 
and  effects  of  heat  can  be  measured  and  compared,  and  abso- 
lute cold  being-  the  bottom  of  the  scale,  all  degrees  of  tempera- 
ture are  simply  relative.  It  is  better  not  to  make  a  practice 
of  speaking-  of  degrees  of  heat,  because  the  word  heat  is 
applied  in  several  different  ways;  and  it  will  be  well  before 
going-  further  to  refer  to  four  separate  expressions  insepar- 
able from  our  subject,  in  which  the  word  is  used,  viz.,  sensible 
heat,  latent  heat,  heat  unit  and  specific  heat. 

SENSIBLE    HEAT. 

Sensible  heat  or  temperature  is  that  heat  or  "hotness" 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  27 

which  is  apparent  to  our  senses  and  which  we  can  measure 
with  a  thermometer.  There  are  three  differently  scaled 
instruments  principally  used  for  this  purpose.  The  French 
or  Centigrade  thermometer  is  considered  by  many  the  best 
for  laboratory  work  and  scientific  research;  the  Reaumur  is 
used  in  Germany  and  in  some  breweries;  but  in  ice  making- 
and  refrig-erating-  establishments  where  the  English  languag-e 
is  spoken,  the  Fahrenheit  thermometer  is  the  one  in  universal 
use;  therefore,  whenever  temperatures  are  referred  to  in 
these  pag-es,  unless  specially  excepted,  they  apply  to  Fahren- 
heit's scale.  The  zero  mark  or  0  on  this  instrument  is  placed 
32°  below  the  freezing-  point  of  water;  such  freezing-  point  is 
marked  32C.  The  boiling-  point  of  water  at  sea  level  is  212°, 
and  the  absolute  zero  of  temperature  is  460°  below  zero,  or 
492°  below  the  freezing;  point  of  water.  What  the  intensity 
of  this  cold  amounts  to  will  perhaps  be  better  understood  and 
appreciated  when  it  is  considered  that  just  as  much  as  ice  is 
colder  than  molten  solder,  so  much  is  absolute  zero  colder  than 
melting-  ice. 

HEAT    UNIT. 

A  heat  unit  is  a  standard  of  measurement  by  which  is 
expressed  the  capacity  of  a  given  weig-ht  of  any  body  to 
absorb  and  retain  heat  or  energy,  under  a  given  increase  of 
sensible  heat  or  temperature.  As  water  possesses  a  greater 
capacity  for  heat  than  almost  any  other  known  body,  its  prop- 
erties have  been  adopted  for  such  standard.  In  scientific 
circles  the  French  unit  or  "calorie"  is  used,  that  being- 
the  amount  of  heat  required  to  raise  one  kilogramme  of 
water  1°  (from  4°  to  5°)  Centigrade;  but  the  British  thermal 
unit,  written  B.  T.  U.,  which  represents  the  heat  required 
to  raise  one  pound  of  water  lc  (from  39°  to  40°)  F.,  is  the 
uni  versally  recog-nized  standard  of  heat  measurements  among- 
ice  men  in  America,  England  and  Australia. 

SPECIFIC    HEAT. 

The  specific  heat  of  any  body  or  substance  is  the  capac- 
ity for  heat  which  any  given  wreig-ht  of  that  body  possesses 
as  compared  with  an  equal  weig-ht  of  the  standard,  water. 
As  the  specific  heat  of  water  is  expressed  by  unity,  the  spe- 


28  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

cific  heat  of  any  other  body  is  a  fraction,  which  represents  the 
proportion  of  a  British  thermal  unit  that  is  required  to 
raise  the  temperature  of  one  pound  of  any  such  body  1°  F. 
The  specific  heat  of  different  bodies  is  found  to  vary  slightly 
with  change  of  temperature,  but,  although  this  amount  has  to 
be  allowed  for  in  calculations  of  scientific  accuracy,  it  is  of  no 
importance  in  the  practical  work  of  refrigeration.  The 
specific  heat  of  gases,  however,  varies  very  much  under  the 
two  different  conditions  of  their  pressure  in  the  one  and 
their  volume  in  the  other  case,  being  affected  by  the  addition 
or  abstraction  of  heat.  This  will  be  referred  to  more  fully 
when  dealing  with  the  compression  and  expansion  of  gases. 

LATENT    HEAT. 

The  term  latent  heat  is  applied  to  the  heat  which  is  taken 
up  by  any  body  without  causing  a  change  of  temperature, 
when  it  passes  from  the  solid  to  the  liquid  state,  or  from 
liquid  to  vapor ;  in  the  former  case  it  is  termed  the  latent  heat 
of  liquefaction  or  fusion,  and  in  the  latter  case  the  latent  heat 
of  vaporization.  When  either  ice  or  a  metal  is  melted  from 
the  solid  state  at  its  respective  melting  point,  or  water  at 
212°  is  converted  into  steam  at  212°,  then  heat  is  taken  up 
without  a  change  of  temperature  or  sensible  heat,  and  such 
heat  is  said  to  be  latent;  and,  similarly,  when  the  reverse 
process  takes  place  this  latent  heat  is  again  given  out. 

ILLUSTRATIONS    OF    HEAT    TERMS. 

From  the  table  of  specific  heats  which  follows  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  specific  heat  of  ice  is  .504.  The  latent  heat  of 
liquefaction  of  water  is  142  B.  T.  U.,  and  the  latent  heat  of  its 
vaporization  is  966  B.  T.  U.  From  this  we  are  able  to 
see  that  it  will  not  suffice  to  abstract  212  units  from  steam 
at  212°  to  bring  it  down  to  ice  at  0°,  but  that  1,304.5  units 
must  be  removed — as  the  quantity  of  measurement  of 
thermal  units — by  which  one  pound  of  water  differs  as 
regards  its  storage  of  heat  under  the  two  conditions. 

Thus,  to  reduce: 

A  pound  of  steam  at  212°  to  water  at  212°  represents  966.     B.  T.  U. 
of  water  at  212°  to       "       at    32°  "          180. 

of       "       at    32°  to  ice        at    32°  "          142.4 

of  ice        at    32°  to       "       at      0°  "  16.1 


Total 1,304.5  B.  T.  U. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION,  29 

The  specific  heat  of  iron  is  only  between  .11  and  .13 
(say  only  one-eighth  part)  that  of  water;  and  thus  rubber 
bags  or  metal  cylinders  filled  with  hot  water  are  used  instead 
of  hot  metal,  when  it  is  required  to  store  heat  for  such  pur- 
poses as  personal  comfort.  In  old  fashioned  tea-urns  it  was 
customary  to  use  an  iron  heater  to  keep  the  water  warm,  but 
owing-  to  the  low  specific  heat  of  iron,  any  given  weight  of 
that  material  cooling*  from  560°  to  160°,  or  through  400°, 
would  only  give  out  the  same  amount  of  heat  as  an  equal 
weight  of  water  cooling-  to  160°  from  the  boiling-  point. 

THE  HEAT  TO  BE  ABSTRACTED  IN  THE  WORK  OF 
REFRIGERATION. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  work  which  has  to  be 
accomplished  in  cooling-,  chilling-  or  freezing-  food,  or  other 
materials,  and  in  reducing-  the  temperature  of  the  chambers 
in  which  they  may  be  stored,  is  (apart  from  leakage  and  con- 
duction) directly  dependent  upon  the  specific  heat  of  the 
various  substances  involved,  namely,  those  of  which  the 
chamber  is  constructed,  of  the  air  which  it  contains,  and  of 
the  goods  stored  therein.  The  following  table  shows  the 
specific  heats,  as  generally  accepted,  of  a  few  of  the  more 
common  materials  connected  with  the  construction  of 
refrigerators  and  the  substances  which  are  usually  stored 
therein  to  be  refrigerated,  it  being  noted  that  the  specific 
heat  of  food  products  is  largely  governed  by  the  percentage 
of  water  which  they  contain. 

Water being  1.00  Marble is  .209  to  .215 

Ice is  .504  Air is  .238 

Turpentine is  .467  Oil is  .310 

Oak is  .570  Alcohol is  .659 

Pine is  .650  Strong  brine,  .is  .700 

Wrought  iron  ..is  .113  to.  125        Vinegar is  .920 

Cast  iron is  .130  Cream is  .680 

Tin is  .056  Milk is  .90 

Zinc is  .095  Fat  beef is  .60 

Copper is  . 095  Lean  beef is  .77 

Lead is  .031  Fat  pork   is  .51 

Coal is  .241  Veal is  .70 

Coke is  .203  Fish is  .70    to    .85 

Charcoal is  .241  Chicken is  .80 

Brickwork  (Bankint)  .  .is  .200  Fruit  or  wgrtabta. .  .is  .50    to     .93 

Glass is  .197  Eggs is  .76 

Stone..  ..is  .270 


3()  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


CHAPTER    III. 

THE    PRACTICAL    WORK     OF    ARTIFICIAL 
REFRIGERATION. 

HOW    CAN    A    MACHINE    PRODUCE    COLD? 

Seeing*  that  all  machines  work  with  more  or  less  friction, 
and  that  the  power  thus  lost  reappears  in  another  form  of 
energy  as  heat — which  is  sensible  and  apparent — there  is 
some  excuse  for  the  difficulty  felt  by  the  ordinary  lay  mind 
in  comprehending-  the  production  of  cold  by  machinery.  It 
may  be  said  at  once  that  no  combination  of  mechanism,  even 
with  unlimited  power  to  drive  it,  could  alone  make  ice  from 
water;  and  that  an  ice  machine  is  simply  an  instrument  for 
dealing1  with  some  substance  which  operates  as  a  medium  in 
such  a  way  that  it  (the  medium)  is  enabled  to  take  up  heat 
from  the  body  to  be  cooled  and  transfer  it  to  another  body. 

Except  under  very  special  circumstances,  which  will  be 
referred  to  later  on,  this  heat  is  transferred  to  the  water 
which  is  used  for  the  purpose  of  condensation  and  g-oes  to 
waste. 

TWO    CLASSES    OF    MEDIUM    USED. 

There  are  two  distinct  systems  of  mechanical  refrigera- 
tion in  use,  both  operating-  by  means  of  a  medium.  Under 
the  more  simple  system  this  medium  is  a  permanent  g-as 
which  is  alternately  compressed  and  expanded,  but  not  lique- 
fied under  such  compression.  In  actual  practice  atmospheric 
air  is  alone  used  for  this  purpose,  and  the  machines  are 
termed  compressed  air  machines. 

Under  a  more  complex  system  of  mechanical  refrig-era- 
tion  a  more  volatile  medium  is  employed,  and  in  the  operation 
of  the  machinery  there  is  alternate  liquefaction  and  volatiliza- 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  31 


tion.  Althoug-h  many  different  media  have  been  tried,  each 
of  which  has  some  special  quality  to  recommend  it,  the  prin- 
cipal ones  to  which  reference  will  here  be  made  are  sulphuric 
ether,  sulphurous  acid,  ammonia  and  carbonic  acid.  In  the 
system  introduced  by  Carre  a  solution  of  ammonia  in  water 
is  employed,  the  gas  is  driven  off  by  the  direct  application  of 
heat,  and  is  ag-ain  reabsorbed  by  the  water  after  fulfilling-  its 
functions  in  the  circuit  of  the  apparatus;  this  is  known  as  an 
absorption  system."  Althoug-h  there  are  many  authorities 
who  still  advocate  the  advantag-es  of  the  absorption  process, 
the  greater  number  of  refrig-erating-  eng-ineers  now  adopt  the 
compression  system. 


32 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


COLD  AIR   MACHINES. 


These  machines,  coming-  under  the  first  or  simpler  sys- 
tem already  referred  to,  operate  by  virtue  of  the  law  that  all 
mechanical  work  has  a  thermal  equivalent.  The  diagram 
(Fig-.  5)  illustrates  the  action  of  such  a  machine  in  dealing- 
with  a  pound  weig-ht  of  air.  At  atmospheric  density,  or  14.7 


FlG.   5. — DIAGRAM   ILLUSTRATING  THEORY  OF   COLD  AIR  MACHINES. 

pounds  per  square  inch,  and  a  temperature  of  62°,  one  pound 
of  air  possesses  the  intrinsic  energy  due  to  its  specific  heat 
multiplied  by  its  absolute  temperature,  /.  c.,  62°+461c=523° ; 
and  it  occupies  a  volume  of  13.141  cubic  feet,  which  is  repre- 
sented by  the  horizontal  leng-th  of  the  diagram.  If  such  a 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  33 

volume  of  air  is  compressed  to  a  density  of  four  atmospheres, 
then  between  47,000  and  48,000  foot-pounds  of  energy  will  be 
required  to  perform  the  work,  and  if  we  assume  a  f  rictionless 
piston  and  a  non-conducting-  cylinder,  the  air  will  not  follow 
Mariotte's  law,  and  by  an  isothermal  compression  occupy 
one-fourth  or  25  per  cent  of  its  original  volume  at  the  orig- 
inal  temperature,  but  will  rise  to  a  temperature  of  320~,  and 
fill  37.3  per  cent  instead  of  25  per  cent  of  the  original  volume, 
the  difference  representing  the  work  performed  by  the 
engine  in  the  operation  of  compression. 

Now  while  the  medium  is  under  this  increased  tension, 
which  with  cold  air  machines  seldom  exceeds  five  atmos- 
pheres, the  compressed  air  may  be  passed  through  a  con- 
denser or  cooler  and  have  its  temperature  again  brought  to 
62°,  in  which  case  the  heat  or  energy  expended  upon  it  by 
the  engine  will  be  communicated  to  the  condensing  water, 
and  for  all  practical  purposes  be  lost.  The  air  then  only 
possesses  the  same  intrinsic  energy  which  it  did  before  com- 
pression, but  it  is  in  a  physical  or  mechanical  condition  which 
enables  it  to  perform  work  by  expanding  again  to  atmos- 
pheric pressure.  This  expansion  in  practice  is  carried  out 
in  an  engine  similar  to  a  steam  engine,  which  assists  the 
working  of  the  whole  refrigerating  machine,  and  the  final 
temperature  of  the  air  is  found  by  simple  proportion,  thus: 

As  compressed  absolute  temperature  before  condensa- 
tion is  to  compressed  absolute  temperature  after  condensa- 
tion— that  is,  as — 

461-+  320-=  781C  is  to  461C+  62C=  523- 

so  is  original  temperature  before  compression  to  final 
temperature  after  expansion — that  is — 

461C+  62C=  523°  to  348°  absolute  =     -  113° 

Or,  to  make  a  simple  proportion  sum  of  it— 
781°  :  523C  :   :  523°  :  348C  and  348°  -  -  461°        -  113C 

In  actual  practice  this  theoretical  low  temperature  is 
never  reached,  about  — 80°  being  the  minimum,  and  — 50° 
an  ordinary  temperature,  the  losses  from  friction  and  con- 
duction being  proportionately  much  less  in  larger  machines, 
as  would  be  supposed.  The  results  with  these  machines  are 
also  much  affected  by  the  moisture  in  the  air  and  other 
causes. 

(3) 


34 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


The  shipment  of  chilled  and  frozen  meat  from  Australia, 
the  Argentine  Republic,  and  the  Cape,  to  England,  led  to  a 
great  number  of  ships  being-  fitted  with  air  machines,  and 
several  eminent  firms  in  England  made  a  specialty  of  their 
manufacture.  Owing-  to  the  confined  space  available  between 
decks  on  shipboard,  these  machines  were  often  so  placed  as 
to  make  access  to  their  working-  parts  very  difficult,  and 
when  they  reached  the  largest  size  the  whole  transverse 
space  available  in  the  ship  was  filled.  Fig-.  6  represents  one 
of  the  larg-est  cold  air  machines  as  made  by  the  Haslam  Co., 
of  Derby,  England,  and  by  its  complication  suggests  that 
the  engineer  in  charge  would  likely  be  glad  to  see  it  replaced 
by  a  modern  ammonia  machine.  From  an  inspection  of  the 
illustration  it  will  be  seen  that  in  this  typical  cold  air  machine 


FlG.   6. — HASLAM    COLD    AIR    MACHINE    FOR    SHIPBOARD. 

(still  greatly  used)  the  high  and  low  pressure  cylinders  of 
the  compound  steam  engine  are  at  the  crank  shaft  end,  the 
two  compression  cylinders  in  the  middle,  and  the  two  expan- 
sion cylinders,  with  their  special  slide  valves,  at  the  tail  end. 
The  surface  condenser,  cooler  and  snow-box  are  all  arranged 
in  the  bed  plate,  the  latter  below  the  expansion  cylinders. 

However  complicated  this  machine  may  look,  it  is  really 
a  simple  affair  when  compared  with  some  cold  air  refriger- 
ators that  have  been  constructed.  Fig.  7  represents  the 
cylinders  forming  one  side  of  a  machine  which  is  fitted  writh 
two  compound  tandem  steam  engines,  two  air  compressors 
and  two  air  expansion  cylinders,  all  coupled  to  one  crank 
shaft,  and  with  steam  condensers,  air  coolers  and  snow- 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


35 


boxes  in  the  sole  plate.  Such  a  machine  was  fitted  in  a  ship 
to  carry  80,000  carcasses  of  mutton  from  Australia,  and  it 
broke  down  at  sea.  If  there  is  any  ammonia  man  who  thinks 
he  has  a  hard  row  to  hoe  in  looking-  after  his  own  machine  on 
land,  perhaps  he  will  just  consider  what  is  the  first  thing-  he 
would  try  to  do  if  he  was  in  charg-e  of  such  a  freezing-  machine 
as  this,  running-  eig-hty-five  revolutions  per  minute  with  160 
pounds  of  steam  pressure,  the  ship  rolling-  heavily,  the  tem- 
perature in  the  holds  g-oing-  up,  $80,000  worth  of  meat  at 
stake,  and  his  compressor  pistons  so  much  in  trouble  that  it 
is  certain  they  must  be  g-ot  out  and  be  replaced  by  spare 
ones.  In  such  a  case,  which  actually  occurred,  the  engineer 
in  charg-e  grappled  successfully  with  it,  and  then  had  his  sole 


L. P.  STEAM 


//./?  STEAM 


COMPRESSION 


EXPANSION 


FlG.    7. — COMPOUND  STEAM    ENGINE,    WITH    COMPRESSION    AND    EXPAN- 
SION  AIR    CYLINDERS,   FORMING   ONE   SIDE   OF   REFRIGERATING 
MACHINE    FOR   SHIPBOARD   SERVICE. 

Steam  engines,  14"  and  24"  diameters.     Compressor,  30".     Expansion 

cylinder,  23"  diameter.    Stroke  30.     Steam  pressure,  160  Ibs. 

Revolutions,  60  per  minute. 

plate  break  by  the  working-  of  the  ship  and  throw  all  out  of 
line.  This  necessitated  the  transshipment  of  the  whole  carg-o 
to  another  vessel  in  Sydney  harbor  after  a  voyag-e  from 
Queensland  had  been  completed. 

GREAT    POWER   REQUIRED    BY    COMPRESSED    AIR    MACHINES. 

Both  in  theory  and  in  practice  compressed  air  machines 
require  very  much  more  power  for  a  g-iven  abstraction  of  heat, 
amounting-  to  from  four  to  six  times  as  much  as  some  other 
machines  do.  They  are  therefore  rapidly  g-oing-  out  of  use 
except  for  special  purposes.  It  is  possible  in  compressing- 
air  to  reach  very  hig-h  and  low  relative  temperatures  without 
much  difficulty,  and  it  occurred  to  the  author,  in  the  early 
days  of  refrig-eration,  that  some  of  the  heat  or  energ-y  which 
is  dissipated  to  the  condensing-  water  in  these  machines,  and 
-vhich  is  equivalent  to  the  -whole  amount  of  the  engine  power, 
might  be  utilized  by  combining-  a  compressed  air  refrigerator 


36 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION, 


with  a  modification  of  the  Du  Tremblay  ether  engine;  and  he 
took  out  a  New  South  Wales  patent  in  April,  1880  (No.  812), 
for  a  refrigerating-  machine  which  had  an  ether  engine  as  well 
as  a  steam  engine  to  supply  the  power. 


FlG.    8. — REFERENCE    TO    COMBINED   AIR    AND    ETHER    MACHINE. 

A1  Low  pressure  compression  cylinder. 
A2  High 

B ]  High         "          expansion 
B  2  Low 

C    Steam  engine 
D    Ether 
E    Ether  pump. 

F  )    f  Condensers  or  exchangers  to  transfer  the  'heat    of   com- 
G  )  \      pressed  air  to  vaporize  ether. 
H    Ordinary  surface  condenser  for  water. 

J    Condenser  or  exchanger  for  liquefying  ether  vapors  by  ex- 
panded and  cooled  air. 
K  Receptacle  for  liquid  ether. 
L   Crank  shaft. 
M  Fly  wheel. 
N   Slide  valve  eccentrics. 
O    Expansion  valve  eccentrics. 
P   Slipper  guides. 
a    Inlet  to  first  compressor  from  chill  room  (through  desiccator 

or  exchanger  if  used). 

b    Compressed  air  delivery  to  exchanger  F. 
c     Inlet  to  second  compressor  from  exchanger  F. 
d    Compressed  air  delivery  to  exchanger  G. 
e     Inlet  to  air  expansion  high  pressure  cylinder. 
f    Exhaust  to  exchanger  J  from  high  pressure  cylinder. 
g    Inlet  to  low  pressure  air  expansion  cylinder  from  J. 
//    Expanded  air  exhaust  to  cold  chamber. 
/     Suction  pipe  to  ether  pump  E  from  vessel  K. 
k    Delivery  pipe  from  ether  pump  E  to  exchanger  F. 
/     Pipe  conveying  heated  ether  from  F  to  G  for  further  heating. 
m  Pipe  conveying  ether  vapor  from  G  to  ether  engine  F. 
n    Exhaust  pipe  of  ether  engine  to  condenser  J. 
o    Pipe  conveying  liquid  and  condensed  ether  to  vessel  K. 
p  \ [   (  Inlet  and  outlet  pipes  for  condensing  or  circulating  water 
1      to  condenser  H. 

-  Direction  of  air. 
_._._._._._._._._  Direction  of  ether. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  37 

In  this  machine  the  first  heat  was  to  be  abstracted  from 
the  compressed  air  in  a  primary  condenser  or  exchang-er  by 
means  of  ether  sprays  on  the  condenser  tubes,  and  the  vapor 
thus  produced  was  to  be  utilized  in  the  ether  engine  to  assist 
the  steam  engine  and  reduce  the  steam  power  necessary  for 
the  work.  The  machine  has  never  been  made,  and  it  is  cer- 
tain that  in  actual  practice  a  very  larg-e  percentag-e  of  the 
power  thus  saved  would  be  required  to  overcome  the  extra 
friction  resulting-  from  the  additional  number  of  parts;  still 
it  appears  absolutely  certain  that  it  is  only  by  some  such 
method  of  utilizing-  the  heat  which  is  now  thrown  away  in  the 
condensers  of  refrig-erating-  machines  that  any  great  fuel 
economy  in  the  future  of  artificial  refrig-eration  is  possible. 


38  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE    USE    OF   A   GAS    WHICH    LIQUEFIES  UNDER 

PRESSURE. 

In  referring  to  the  second  or  more  complex  system  of 
mechanical  refrigeration  it  was  stated  that  a  volatile  medium 
such  as  ether,  sulphurous  acid,  ammonia  and  carbonic  acid 
was  employed  instead  of  a  permanent  gas,  as  in  the  air 
machines.  Before  considering-  the  construction  of  machines 
used  with  these  gases  it  will  be  well  to  consider  some  of  the 
properties  of  the  g-ases  themselves. 

PROPERTIES    OF    GASES   MOST    CONCERNED    IN    THE  OPERATION 
OF    REFRIGERATING    MACHINES. 

It  is  not  many  years  since  the  liquefaction  of  carbonic 
acid  and  ammonia,  now  so  much  used  in  refrigerating 
machines,  was  confined  to  laboratory  experiments;  but  since 
it  has  been  understood  that  pressure  and  cold  were  the 
factors  necessary  to  liquefy  them,  other  g-ases,  which  it  was 
for  a  long  time  considered  impossible  to  deal  with,  including 
hydrogen,  have  been  liquefied  also.  Condensed  liquid  oxygen 
is  now  sold  as  an  ordinary  commercial  product,  and  air,  after 
being  liquefied  by  the  gallon,  has  been  frozen  solid. 

It  is,  therefore,  possible  that  in  the  future  there  may  be 
refrigerating  machines  operating  with  liquid  air  under  the 
enormous  pressure  of,  say,  2,000  pounds  per  square  inch, 
with  a  primary  condenser  at,  say,  90°  temperature,  and  a 
secondary  or  tertiary  condenser  at  — 250°.  At  the  present 
time  (omitting  methylic  ether,  used  under  the  Tellier  system 
in  France)  the  principal  media  used  in  refrigeration  machines 
are  restricted  to  sulphuric  ether,  sulphur  dioxide,  ammonia 
and  carbonic  acid. 

Now,  as  with  the  conversion  of  water  into  steam,  all  the 
substances  just  referred  to  require  to  take  up  heat  to  change 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  39 

them  from  the  liquid  to  the  gaseous  condition.  It  makes  no 
difference  to  this  property  that  the  boiling-  point  of  three  of 
them  is  below  the  ordinary  temperature  of  the  atmosphere, 
so  that  their  normal  condition  at  atmospheric  pressure  is  the 
gaseous  one.  As  with  water  and  steam,  the  boiling  point  of 
these  and  other  gases  means  the  temperature  at  which  such 
gases  will  liquefy,  as  well  as  that  at  which  their  liquids  will 
pass  again  to  the  gaseous  condition;  in  fact  a  temperature 
under  which  a  given  weight  of  the  material  may  be  either 
entirely  liquid,  entirely  gaseous,  or  partly  in  one  state  and 
partly  in  the  other,  depending  for  its  condition  upon  the 
number  of  heat  units  contained  in  or  held  by  it;  and  such 
temperature,  as  with  steam,  depends  upon  the  actual  pressure 
to  which  it  is  subjected  at  the  time.  Conversely  the  pressure 
under  which  any  gas  can  be  liquefied  depends  upon  its  tem- 
perature.* At  atmospheric  pressure  the  boiling  points  of 
these  four  gases  are  as  follows: 

SULPHURIC  ETHER.         SULPHUR  DIOXIDE.         AMMONIA.         CARBONIC  ACID. 

+  96°  -J-140  —29°  —124° 

For  the  practical  purposes  of  artificial  refrigeration  the 
lowest  temperature  to  which  heated  gases  under  pressure 
can  be  reduced  is  limited  by  the  temperature  of  the  water 
used  for  condensation. f  This  water  may  be  as  low  as  45°  or 
50°  in  temperate  countries,  and  in  hot  climates  may  exceed 
90°. 

The  diagram,  Fig.  9,  shows  in  graphic  form  the  vapor 
tensions  of  carbonic  acid,  ammonia,  sulphurous  acid,  ether 
and  water  under  the  temperatures  met  with  in  practical 
work,  or  the  boiling  points  of  these  media  under  widely  vary- 
ing conditions  as  to  pressure.  For  instance,  it  will  be  seen 
that  carbonic  acid,  which  under  atmospheric  pressure  will 
boil  at  124J  below  zero,  requires  about  1,080  pounds  per 
square  inch  to  liquefy  it  at  96°,  affording  a  great  contrast  to 
water,  the  boiling  point  of  which  at  14.7  pounds  or  one  atmos- 

*The  critical  temperature  of  a  gas  is  that  temperature  above 
which  no  increase  of  pressure  will  produce  liquefaction  and  the  g-as 
remains  permanent. 

fFor  experimental  purposes  to  produce  very  low  temperatures  the 
condensed  gas  may  be  cooled  by  a  second  refrigeration,  and  a  step-by- 
step  process  adopted  for  attaining  the  lowest  extreme  possible. 


40 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


phereis212c,  and  which  requires  the  pressure  reduced  down 
to  0.089  of  one  pound  per  square  inch  (or  a  very  hig-h  vacuum) 
to  enable  it  to  evaporate  at  32°.  Again,  sulphuric  ether, 
which  boils  at  96C  under  atmospheric  pressure,  must  be 
attenuated  to  at  least  twelve  pounds  below  atmospheric 


TEMPERATURE 


AT 


PRINCIPAL      MEDIA       USED 


BOILING       POINTS 

oS/t>e 

REFRIGERATING     MACHINES 


Pourtdc 


I      !     1 


Square 


inch 


UHIS 


TEN 


Py ERE4 


Ct 


VAPOURS  OF 
WATER  *MO  SULPHURIC  ETHER 


ATER        ETHER 


IA   7   IbS. 
7-31 


100 
60 

u 

-  £0 


96lbs. 


7-2 

3-6 
E-6 


/^o  sma.1/  fo  tie  react 


FlG.   9. — DIAGRAM    ILLUSTRATING    BOILING    POINTS    OF 
REFRIGERATING  MEDIA. 

pressure  before  it  will  evaporate  at  the  freezing1  point  of 
water.  From  these  figures  it  will  be  noted  that  machines 
for  making-  ice  by  the  evaporation  of  either  water  or  ether 
must  work  with  a  partial  vacuum,  their  pumps  exhausting- 
their  refrigerators  to  pressures  below  that  of  the  atmosphere. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  41 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE   LATENT  HEAT  OF   LIQUEFACTION  IN    ITS 
APPLICATION  TO  REFRIGERATION. 


Although  the  temperature  at  which  a  volatile  medium 
may  be  made  to  boil  in  the  coils  of  a  refrigerator  has  a  very 
important  bearing-  on  the  production  of  cold,  as — other 
things  being  equal — the  lower  the  degree  of  cold  produced 
the  greater  the  amount  of  heat  that  can  be  taken  up,  yet 
there  is  another  property  of  these  volatile  substances  which 
has  a  great  deal  to  do  with  the  results  that  can  be  attained  by 
their  use  in  a  refrigerating  machine,  and  that  is  their  latent 
heat  of  liquefaction,  or  the  number  of  heat  units  that  any 
given  weight  of  such  medium  will  take  up  in  passing  from 
the  liquid  to  the  gaseous  condition.  To  make  the  import- 
ance of  this  property  clearer,  we  may  suppose  that  a  pound 
of  one  medium  in  evaporating  will  abstract  heat  enough  to 
bring  two  pounds  of  the  substance  to  be  refrigerated  down 
100°,  while  one  pound  of  another  medium  will,  under  similar 
conditions,  lower  the  temperature  of  ten  pounds  of  the  same 
substance,  but  only  by  50°;  still  the  medium  in  the  second 
case  would,  other  things  being  equal,  be  two  and  a  half  times 
as  efficient  for  the  purpose  of  refrigeration,  because  it  would, 
in  its  conversion  into  vapor,  abstract  two  and  a  half  times  as 
many  thermal  units  from  its  surroundings  as  that  in  the 
former  one.  Supposing  liquid,  such  as  wort  in  a  brewery,  is 
the  substance  to  be  cooled,  then  two  pounds  lowered  100" 
represents  the  abstraction  of  200  thermal  units,  while  ten 
pounds  lowered  50°  would  be  equivalent  to  500  B.  T.  U. 

Therefore,  before  we  can  ascertain  the  relative  efficiency 
of  two  or  more  different  media  for  abstracting  heat  in  a 
refrigerator,  we  must  ascertain  their  respective  latent  heats 


42 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION, 


of  liquefaction  under  the  conditions  which  accompany  their 
practical  application. 

Fig.  10  is  a  diagram  which  shows  in  thermal  units  the 
latent  heat  of  one  pound  of  each  of  the  four  principal  media 


60 


-10 


LATENT    HEAT  OF  VAPORIZATION 

;    Per  Pound  of  Medium  — 

—  IN   BRITISH    THERMAL    UNITS  — 

With    PKi'ncihal    Media    Used    m    RefvigeKaftnq    Machines 


§ 


FlG.  10. — DIAGRAM  SHOWING  LATENT  HEAT  OF  REFRIGERATING  MEDIA. 

before  referred  to,  and  under  a  range  of  temperature  which 
covers  their  ordinary  use  for  refrigerating  purposes. 

USELESS    WORK    PERFORMED    IN    THE    REFRIGERATOR. 

When  a  gas  is  liquefied  under  the  influence  of  pressure 
(whether  produced  by  a  pump  or  through  the  direct  appli- 
cation of  heat),  and  the  abstraction  of  heat  by  cooling  it  in  a 
condenser,  the  resulting  liquid  is  necessarily  at  a  tempera- 
ture something  above  that  of  the  condensing  water,  and  is 
still  under  the  pressure  at  which  it  was  condensed;  but  it  is 
in  a  position  to  change  its  condition  again  directly  that 
influence  is  removed.  In  actual  practice  the  pressure  is 
retained  in  the  condenser,  or  liquid  receiver,  by  an  "expan- 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  43 

sion"  cock  or  "flash  "  valve,  which  regulates  the  passage  of 
the  liquid  refrigerant  into  the  coils  of  the  refrigerator, 
releasing-  its  pressure  at  the  same  time  from  that  in  the 
condenser  to  that  of  the  refrigerator.  Under  these  condi- 
tions the  liquid  on  its  release  immediately  boils  and  evapo- 
rates, or,  in  the  words  often  used,  flashes  into  vapor,  hence 
the  name  of  the  valve.  In  so  doing-  it  abstracts  heat  from 
the  metal  of  the  coils  and  the  air  or  liquid  surrounding-  such 
coils;  but  it  must  be  particularly  noted  that  this  gaseous 
medium  has  to  be  cooled  down  itself  before  it  can  cool  the 
refrigerator  to  any  given  or  required  temperature,  and  that 
therefore  a  certain  proportion  of  its  actual  cooling  power  is 
not  effective  for  external  refrigeration. 

The  amount  of  heat,  or  the  number  of  thermal  units, 
that  is  thus  lost  before  any  useful  refrigeration  is  done  is 
the  product  of  the  specific  heat  of  such  medium,  multiplied 
by  the  number  of  degrees  it  is  lowered  in  temperature.  All 
this  cooling  power  is  absolutely  lost  so  far  as  any  useful 
effect  is  concerned,  because  the  medium  has  to  be  heated  up 
again  by  the  expenditure  of  more  energy  at  every  circuit  it 
makes  through  the  machine. 

THREE    PROPERTIES    OF     A    GAS    CONCERNED    IN    FORMING    AN 
EFFICIENT    REFRIGERATING    MEDIUM. 

From  the  foregoing  remarks  it  will  be  understood  that 
the  relative  efficiency  of  different  gases  for  refrigerating 
purposes  is  mainly  dependent  upon  three  properties  pos- 
sessed by  them,  and  not  upon  any  one  special  characteristic, 
and  these  are: 

1.  A  low  temperature  of  vaporization  upon  which  depends 
the  degree  of  cold  that  can  be  produced  by  such  evaporation. 

2.  A  high   latent  heat    upon  which    depends  the   total 
number  of  heat  units  which  will  be  abstracted  by  the  evapo- 
ration of  a  given  weight  of  the  medium. 

3.  A  low  specific  heat  upon  which  depends  the  net  per- 
centage of  the  heat  taken  up  by  (2),  or,  in  other  words,  the 
proportion  of  the  gross  amount  of  cold  produced  which  can 
be  actually  utilized. 


44  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

WHY  AMMONIA  IS  SO  LARGELY  USED  IN  REFRIG- 
ERATING MACHINES. 


Although  ether,  chloride  of  methyl  and  several  other 
media  have  been  used  in  refrigerating-  machines  besides  those 
already  referred  to,  and  some  are  still  advocated  under  special 
conditions,  yet  ammonia  is  now  used  more  than  all  the  rest  of 
them  put  together,  experience  having  proved  the  many 
advantages  it  possesses.  The  principal  reason  why  ammonia 
has  supplanted  the  use  of  other  liquids  as  the  circulating 
medium  in  refrigerating  machinery  is  because  it  has  such  a 
high  latent  heat  of  vaporization,  being  555  B.  T.  U.  at  zero, 
against  123  for  carbonic  acid.  That  is  to  say,  one  pound  of 
ammonia  at  zero  in  passing  from  the  liquid  to  the  gaseous 
condition  would  take  up  555  thermal  units,  while  the  other 
liquids  before  referred  to  would  take  up  less  than  a  third  and 
less  than  a  fourth,  respectively,  of  that  amount. 

There  are  some  compensating  advantages  iji  the  case  of 
carbonic  acid  on  account  of  its  high  specific  gravity,  which 
makes  its  heat  of  vaporization  for  a  given  volume  very  much 
greater  than  ammonia.  The  relative  volumes  at  zero  of  equal 
weights  of  ammonia  and  carbonic  acid  are  about  -1  :  32.4,  and 
thus  the  relative  dimensions  of  the  compressors  for  equal 

12^  2  V  ^2  4 

refrigerating  effects  are  as  —    ' is  to  1,  which  equals 

ooo  , 

nearly  7.2  for  ammonia  to  1  for  carbonic  acid.  This  quality 
would  be  an  ad  vantage  if  all  other  things  were  equal,  but  car- 
bonic acid  reaches  a  critical  condition  at  88°  F.,  and  its  effi- 
ciency rapidly  falls  off  when  the  condensing  water  is  above 
that  temperature.  Many  carbonic  acid  machines  have  their 
refrigerator  and  condenser  placed  the  one  inside  the  other 
for  the  sake  of  compactness,  as  shown  in  Fig.  12,  and  although 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


45 


not  so  intended  by  the  makers,  such  device  enables  power 
to  be  expended  to  cool  the  condensing  water  if  desired.  Such 
an  expedient  is  totally  unnecessary  with  ammonia,  and 
machines  using-  that  material  often  work  with  the  condensing 
water  at  90°  or  over  without  any  great  falling-  off  in  efficiency. 


FIG.  11. — HALL'S  CARBONIC  ACID  MACHINE. 

On  shipboard  there  have  unfortunately  been  many  incidents 
to  create  a  prejudice  against  ammonia,  which  there  is  little 
doubt  were  largely  the  result  of  inferior  workmanship  and 
want  of  care,  and  as  a  consequence  carbonic  acid  machines 
are  now  in  great  favor  for  vessels  at  sea.  The  saving  of  fuel  in 


46 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


such  cases  is  very  large  when  compared  with  the  consumption 
by  the  old  cold  air  machines,  and  therefore  the  still  greater  sav- 
ing- that  could  be  effected  with  the  use  of  ammonia  plants  under 
like  conditions  is  not  at  present  receiving  much  attention. 
No  doubt  when  the  suitability  of  ammonia  machines  for  sea- 
going ships  is  better  understood  they  will  supplant  the  car- 
bonic acid  machine  to  some  extent  on  account  of  their  greater 
economy;  but,  owing  to  carbonic  acid  permitting  the  use  of 


FlG.    12. — SECTION  OF  SMALL   CARBONIC  ACID  MACHINE. 

copper  pipes  for  condensers,  the  many  advantages  of  copper 
over  iron  when  subjected  to  the  action  of  sea-water  will  always 
be  a  heavy  handicap  for  ammonia  machines  at  sea. 

In  a  paper  read  before  the  Ipswich  (England)  meeting  of 
the  British  association  on  "Carbonic  Anhydride  Machines," 
by  Mr.  Hesketh,  one  of  the  directors  of  Messrs.  J.  &  E.  Hall, 
Ltd.,  of  Dartford,  a  firm  that  has  introduced  these  machines 
all  over  the  world,  it  is  clearly  shown  that  with  a  machine 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


47 


producing-  9,360  pounds  of  ice  per  twenty-four  hours  from 
water  at  the  various  temperatures  tabulated  below,  the  inlet 
water  for  the  condenser  being-  the  same,  the  indicated  horse 
power  varied  as  follows: 


Temperature  of  water  

52° 

75° 

85° 

90° 

100° 

I.  H.  P.  of  ensrine  .  . 

15.62 

20.03 

27.2 

28.2 

42.10 

From  a  series  of  experiments  made  by  Messrs.  L.  A. 
Riedinger  &  Co.,  of  Ansburg-,  the  following-  results  were 
deduced: 


Temperature  condensing-  water 


Ice  production  per  hour 


55°  to  69°    !  95°  to  97.7° 


485  pounds.  257  pounds. 


Other  tests  of  cooling  brine  show  that  with  its  temper- 
ature reduced  to  50C  and  to  zero,  and  with  condensing  water 
at  60^  and  100°,  the  efficiency  was  reduced  in  one  case  40  per 
cent  and  in  the  other  60  per  cent  by  the  use  of  the  warmer 
condensing-  water. 

As  a  contrast  to  these  results  the  relative  efficiency  of  a 
cubic  foot  of  ammonia  gas  under  different  temperatures 
between  65°  and  105°  is  shown  by  the  following-  table,  the 
figures  representing  the  refrigerating  effect  in  thermal  units, 
as  given  by  Professor  Siebel  in  the  "  Compend  of  Mechan- 
ical Refrigeration": 


Gauge  suction  pres-  f 
sure  in  pounds,..  J 

Corresponding- tern.  [ 
in  refrig-erator. . .  } 


4  9 

—20°    —10° 


16 
0° 


24 


33 


45 
+30° 


Temp. 
Fahr. 


650 

75° 

850 

95° 

1050 


Gauge  con- 
denser pres- 
sure  in 
pounds. 


103 
127 
153 

184 

218 


Refrigerating-  effect  of  a  cubic  foot  of  ammonia 
g-as  in  British  thermal  units. 


33.74 
33.04 
32.34 
31.64 
30.94 


42.28 
41.41 
40.54 
39.67 
38.80 


54.88 
53.76 
52.64 
51.52 
50.40 


68.66 
67.27 
65.88 
64.49 
63.10 


85.15 
83.44 
81.73 
80.02 
78.31 


106.21 

104.09 

101.97 

92.85 

97.73 


Showing  that  with  back  pressure  from  four  to  forty-five 
pounds  the  increase  of  condenser  temperature  from  65°  to 
105°  only  reduces  the  efficiency  of  a  cubic  foot  of  g-as  about  9 
per  cent. 


48  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION, 


CHAPTER  VIIL 

THE  ABSORPTION  SYSTEM. 

Although  compression  machines  now  largely  out-number 
those  working"  on  the  absorption  principle,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  the  latter  led  the  way  and  for  a  long-  time  carried 
all  before  them.  Introduced  in  1858  by  Ferdinand  Carre,  of 
France,  and  in  1861  into  Australia  by  Mr.  E.  D.  Nicolle,  this 
system  was  largely  developed  by  the  skill  of  that  gentleman 
and  the  munificence  of  the  late  Mr.  T.  S.  Mort.  By  the 
erection  of  ice  works  at  Darlinghurst  in  1863-64  the  ammonia 
system  supplanted  the  ether  machines  of  Harrison  in  New 
South  Wales  at  about  the  same  time  as  Reece  and  others 
were  working  out  the  same  problems  in  Europe.  At  the 
Darlinghurst  works  food  was  kept  in  cold  storage  for  fifteen 
months,  from  the  end  of  1865  to  1867,  when  the  plan  shown 
by  Fig.  13  was  prepared  by  Mr.  Nicolle,  and  seems  to  be  the 
first  authenticated  proposal  ever  made  for  the  purpose  of 
refrigerating  on  shipboard. 

Mr.  Nicolle  is  now  seventy-five  years  of  age,  and  has  for 
many  years  retired  from  active  business;  he  still,  however, 
has  a  great  disbelief  in  compressors,  and  has  been  for  three 
years  past  working  at  his  beautiful  country  home,  on  Lake 
Illawarra,  developing  a  new  process  which  he  hopes  soon  to 
make  public,  with  the  result — to  use  his  own  words  to  the 
author — "of  leading  this  interesting  art  into  its  proper  chan- 
nel again." 

Under  the  absorption  system  an  aqueous  solution  of 
ammonia  is  the  medium  used,  instead  of  pure  anhydrous 
ammonia.  Taking  a  solution  of  twenty-five  parts  of  ammonia 
in  seventy-five  parts  of  water,  in  a  boiler  or  still,  the  applica- 
tion of  heat  will  cause  both  gas  and  aqueous  vapor  (steam) 
to  be  given  off  in  the  proportion  of,  say,  90  per  cent  of  ammonia 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


49 


gas  to  10  per  cent  of  steam  or  vapor.  This  combined 
vapor  is  passed  into  a  condenser  under  the  pressure  main- 
tained in  the  boiler  or  still,  and  such  pressure  is  mainly 
dependent  upon  the  temperature  and  volume  of  the  condens- 
ing- water. 

As  an  effect  of  this  pressure  and  the  transfer  of  heat  to 
the  condensing-  water  the  ammonia  is  liquefied.  This  liquid 
ammonia  is  then  allowed  to  expand  in  the  coils  of  the  refrig- 


FlG.    13. — SECTION   OF   SHIP    FITTED   FOR    COLD   STORAGE. 

Planned  by  Mr.  Nicolle,  1867,  for  the  shipment  of  meat  from 
Australia  to  England. 

erator,  where  it  either  freezes  or  cools  the  substance  it  is 
employed  to  refrigerate.  The  gas  being  driven  out  of  the 
boiler  or  still  by  the  pressure  generated,  the  solution  left — 
called  the  weak  liquor — is  then  drawn  out  and  cooled  in 
another  condenser,  after  which  the  ammonia  from  the 
refrigerator  and  the  weak  mother  liquor  are  allowed  to 
re-unite  and  form  strong  liquor  in  a  vessel  termed  the 

(4) 


50 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION, 


kliiiiiiijui 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


51 


absorber,  from  which  the  system  takes  its  name.  After 
this  the  strong-  liquor  can  be  returned  to  the  boiler  to  go 
through  the  same  cycle  of  operations,  which  may  be  repeated 
over  and  over  again. 

Fig-.  14  is  an  illustration — not  drawn  to  scale — which  will 
enable  the  whole  process  to  be  comprehended;  from  this  the 
great  importance  of  the  desiccator  and  exchanger  will  be 


FlG.    15. — AMMONIA  ABSORPTION    PLANT — ENGLISH  PATTERN. 

understood — the  former,  by  its  separation  of  watery  vapor  or 
steam  from  the  hot  gas,  saves  fuel  and  condensing  water 
directly;  and  the  latter,  by  transferring  the  heat  from  the 
weak  liquor  (which  has  to  be  cooled  before  it  again  absorbs 
the  gas)  to  the  strong  liquor  (which  is  coming  back  to  the 
boiler  to  have  the  ammonia  driven  off  again),  saves  fuel  indi- 
rectly as  well  as  condensing  water. 


52 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


The  absorption  system  involves  a  comparatively  simple 
process,  because  the  apparatus  required  consists  mainly  of 
the  several  vessels,  pipe  coils  and  valves,  and  there  is  no 
motive  power  or  moving-  machinery  required  except  the 
pump  to  return  the  liquor  from  the  absorber  to  the  boiler. 
Even  the  pump  can  be  dispensed  with,  as  under  several 
ingenious  arrangements  a  vessel  like  the  "Monte jus,"  used  in 
sugar  mills,  is  employed,  by  which  the  strong-  liquor  is  lifted 
by  the  pressure  of  the  gas  to  an  elevated  receiver  and 
descends  to  the  still  by  gravity. 

Fig-.  15  is  a  perspective  sketch  of  an  English  absorption 
machine  which  has  been  larg-ely  used  in  breweries. 


FlG.    16. — PUMP    TO    FILL    BY   GRAVITY    FOR    AQUA    AMMONIA. 

Under  one  of  the  patents  taken  out  by  Messrs.  Mort  and 
Nicolle  in  New  South  Wales  there  were  two  re-absorbers  used 
which  worked  under  pressure  and  vacuum  respectively,  and 
in  order  to  overcome  the  difficulty  of  withdrawing-  the  liquor 
from  the  vacuum  chamber  the  pump  shown  by  Fig.  16  was 
specially  designed  by  the  author. 

The  class  of  machinery  used  being-  relatively  cheap  as 
compared  with  compressors,  and  the  process  being-  a  simple 
one,  absorption  machines  are  still  made  and  used  under  cer- 
tain conditions.  Since  its  first  adoption  many  elaborations 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  53 

have  been  made  to  the  original  elements  in  order  to  secure 
fractional  distillation  and  desiccation  of  the  gas,  and  also  by 
means  of  larger  exchangers  to  utilize  more  of  the  waste  heat; 
but  perhaps  the  greater  amount  of  condensing  water  required 
rather  than  the  greater  quantity  of  fuel  practically,  if  not 
theoretically,  wasted  in  the  absorption  machine  is  the  reason 
that  the  compression  system  has  taken  the  lead  in  popular 
favor. 

It  is  found  that  water  at  atmospheric  pressure  and  60° 
F.  will  absorb  about  700  times  its  volume  of  ammoniacal  gas, 
and  that  watery  vapor  will  often  distill  over  with  the  gas, 
which  largely  discounts  the  efficiency  of  the  machine,  because 
this  vapor  not  only  requires  fuel  to  raise  it,  but  a  supply  of 
cold  water  to  condense  it,  and  although  the  increased  amount 
of  fuel  required  might  not  condemn  the  use  of  the  absorption 
system  where  fuel  is  cheap,  yet  in  most  parts  of  Australia, 
having  to  supply  double  the  quantity  of  condensing  water 
would  be  a  serious  drawback,  and  has  led  to  an  increased 
demand  for  compression  machines. 

Many  changes  and  improvements  have  been  made  in  the 
construction  and  mode  of  operation  of  absorption  machines 
in  America  recently,  some  of  the  latest  types  of  which  are 
illustrated  and  described  in  Chapter  XX  of  this  book. 


54  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

THE  COMPRESSION  SYSTEM  REVERTED  TO. 

As  soon  as  the  defects  of  the  absorption  system  were 
understood  inventors  reverted  to  the  work  of  Perkins,  Har- 
rison and  Twining-,  but  it  was  found  to  be  a  very  different 
matter  to  compress  a  subtle  gas  like  ammonia  up  to  twelve 
or  more  atmospheres  than  it  had  been  to  deal  with  ether 
vapor  at  a  comparatively  low  tension;  and  the  results  now 
attained  have  only  been  reached  by  a  long  series  of  experi- 
ments which  had  for  their  object  the  improvement  of  the 
compressor.  Toward  this  work  English,  American,  Conti- 
nental and  Australian  inventors  have  all  contributed.  When 
we  come  to  compare  the  machines  of  different  makers,  we 
shall  find  that  great  diversity  of  opinion  exists  with  regard 
to  details,  and  that  many  of  them  keep  certain  special  points 
in  view  to  the  neglect  of  others  which  are  not,  in  their  opin- 
ion, of  so  much  importance;  hence  we  have  a  large  choice  of 
ammonia  compressors  in  the  market,  some  of  most  admir- 
able design  and  workmanship,  and  nearly  every  one  of  their 
respective  agents  claims  for  his  machine  that  it  is  the  best 
in  the  world.  As  it  is  hardly  possible  that  they  can  all  be 
the  best  absolutely,  seeing  how  widely  they  differ  from  one 
another,  it  will  be  instructive  to  take  a  few  of  the  leading 
types  and,  comparing  one  with  the  other,  examine  into  their 
construction,  method  of  operation  and  relative  efficiency. 

It  must  be  admitted  that  theory  and  natural  laws  have  no 
favorites,  and  that  the  conditions  which  result  from  com- 
pression and  expansion  are  the  same  for  every  one;  but 
theory  alone  is  of  little  avail  in  the  work  of  the  mechanical 
engineer,  and  some  of  the  biggest  failures  in  practice  have 
resulted  from  hugging  one  main  central  theory  so  closely 
that  all  the  little  attendant  theories  were  forgotten.  The 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  55 

practical  experience  which  ensures  success  generally  carries 
with  it  a  knowledge  of  many  little  theories  which  the  ordinary 
theoretical  man  or  mathematical  expert  has  no  opportunity 
of  making  acquaintance  with,  and  it  has  been  mechanical 


FlG.    17. — PERSPECTIVE   VIEW    OF    AUSTRALIAN    ICE    MAKING   PLANT. 

engineers  rather  than  mathematicians  who  have  brought  the 
ammonia  compressor  to  its  present  improved  state. 

Fig.  17  shows  an  ice  making  plant  recently  built  in  Aus- 
tralia, where  an  endeavor  has  been  made  to  produce  a  com- 


56  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

pressor  that  should  embody  as  many  good  features  as  pos- 
sible by  profiting-  from  the  experience  gained  with  many  of 
the  well  tried  designs  already  in  use  there,  which  have  been 
made  in  America,  England  and  Germany  respectively. 

ALL  COMPRESSION  SYSTEMS  EMBODY  THE  SAME  GENERAL 
PRINCIPLES. 

Reference  has  been  made  to  the  many  admirable  books 
which  are  published  as  trade  catalogues  by  makers  of  refrig- 
erating- machinery,  and  there  are  undoubtedly  among-  those 
which  refer  to  compression  plants  for  ammonia  many  which 
are  noticeable  for  the  excellence  of  their  illustrations  and  the 
amount  of  information  which  they  make  public.  Some  of 
these  works,  however,  speak  of  our  system  and  ^^^  principles 
on  which  our  machines  operate"  in  a  way  that'might  be  taken 
to  imply  that  such  systems  and  such  principles  were  special 
and  uncommon,  whereas  they  are  generally  exactly  the  same 
as  those  adopted  by  other  manufacturers  in  the  same  line. 
The  special  characteristics  of  the  leading-  makers  of  machin- 
ery are  now  g-enerally  confined  to  improvements  in  details. 

The  use  of  anhydrous  ammonia  and  of  apparatus  for  the 
liquefaction  of  its  g-as  is  common  property,  and  a  compression 
plant  of  the  present  day  embodies  exactly  the  same  four 
fundamental  sections  which  Jacob  Perkins  showed  in  his 
1834  patent  (see  Fig-.  1);  that  is  :  (1)  The  refrig-erator,  where 
the  medium  is  vaporized  by  the  heat  given  up;  (2)  the 
pump  to  withdraw  the  vapor  or  g-as  from  the  refrig-erator 
and  compress  it  into  (3)  the  condenser,  where  it  is  cooled 
and  liquefied;  and,  lastly  (4)  the  regulating-  cock  or  valve, by 
which  the  admission  of  the  liquefied  medium  into  the  refrig- 
erator again  is  regulated.  These  four  leading  features  are 
amplified  in  modern  plants  by  appliances  for  forcing  oil  into 
the  compressor  cylinder,  or  to  the  stuffing-box  of  the  piston 
rod;  by  special  devices  for  separating  oil  and  foreign  matters 
from  the  medium;  by  the  use  of  vessels  for  storing  the  liquid 
refrigerant,  and  so  on. 

While  there  is  great  diversity  to  be  found  in  the  practical 
construction  of  condensers,  refrigerators  and  other  appurte- 
nances that  will  be  referred  to  in  their  place,  all  of  these  appli- 
ances put  together  do  not  seem  to  have  afforded  so  much 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  57 

scope  for  originality  of  design,  as  well  as  diversity  of  arrange- 
ment and  construction,  as  the  compressor  itself. 

RELATION    OF     THE    SEVERAL    PARTS    OF    A    REFRIGERATING 
MACHINE    TO    ONE   ANOTHER. 

The  relation  which  the  refrigerator,  the  compressor  and 
the  condenser  of  a  refrigerating  plant  occupy  with  regard 
to  one  another  is  much  the  same  as  that  which  exists  between 
a  steam  boiler,  an  expansion  steam  engine  and  a  surface 
condenser — each  section  of  the  apparatus  in  either  series 
begins  and  completes  its  work  upon  the  medium  employed 
without  its  efficiency  being  dependent  upon  either  of  the 
others.  As  the  efficiency  of  any  steam  engine  is  entirely 
independent  of  the  kind  of  boiler  which  supplies  it  with 
steam,  and  the  efficiency  of  the  boiler  is  not  measured  by 
the  engine,  so  in  a  refrigerating  plant  no  particular  form  or 
arrangement  of  condenser  or  refrigerator  is  necessarily 
coupled  with  any  special  design  of  compressor.  Individual 
makers  of  machinery,  however  —  no  doubt  for  sufficie/it 
reasons — often  appear  to  prefer  and  certainly  do  adopt  cer- 
tain special  combinations  of  details  as  their  own,  but  this 
does  not  affect  the  argument  that  such  is  not  indispensable 
for  successful  work. 

Given  ample  surface  for  the  conduction  of  heat,  plenty 
of  section  for  the  gas  to  pass  without  friction,  a  free  get- 
away for  the  liquefied  ammonia,  or  other  medium,  as  cold  as 
possible,  and  absolutely  tight  joints,  it  is  more  a  matter  of 
cost  and  convenience  rather  than  of  efficiency  whether  the 
tubes  of  a  condenser  are  of  small  or  large  diameter,  straight 
or  coiled,  horizontal  or  vertical,  or  even  whether  the  conden- 
ser and  refrigerator  are  made  of  tubes  at  all.  The  first 
ammonia  refrigerators,  made  in  Sydney  about  the  year  1860, 
were  flat  boxes  constructed  of  boiler  plate,  closely  stayed  like 
the  walls  of  a  locomotive  fire-box,  and  they  wrere  effective;  but 
a  coil  of  tubes  electrically  welded,  such  as  is  now  procurable, 
would  not  only  be  more  convenient,  but,  for  a  given  surface, 
would  cost  only  a  small  fraction  of  the  amount  that  the  stayed 
boxes  did. 


58  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


CHAPTER  X. 

IN  THE  LIQUEFACTION  OF  A  GAS  THE  WORK  OF 
THE   COMPRESSOR   OR  PUMP  IS  SUPPLE- 
MENTED BY   THE  ACTION   OF   A 
CONDENSER  OR  COOLER. 

THREE    KINDS    OF    CONDKNSEKS    ARE    USED. 

Refrigerating-  condensers  may  be  divided  under  three 
separate  heads.  First,  The  "  submerged,"  having- coils  gen- 
erally arranged  spirally  and  immersed  in  a  tank  of  water. 
Second,  The  "atmospheric,"  having  the  coils  more  com- 
monly made  of  straight  lengths  of  tube  with  return  bends, 
all  exposed  to  the  air,  with  a  trickling  of  water  constantly 
flowing  over  them;  and  Third,  The  "evaporative,"  similar 
to  the  atmospheric  in  general  arrangement,  but  with  the 
addition  of  devices  to  promote  the  rapid  evaporation  of  a 
smaller  water  supply  from  the  external  surfaces. 

Submerged  Condenser. — When  there  is  an  unlimited  sup- 
ply of  water  the  submerged  condenser  has  certain  advant- 
ages, one  of  which  is  that  the  cold  water  can  enter  its  tank 
near  the  exit  of  the  condensed  gas  at  the  bottom,  rising  as  it 
becomes  warmer  to  where  it  overflows,  and  thus,  by  having 
the  gas  delivered  into  the  top  ends  of  the  tubes,  its  down- 
ward flow  is  in  the  opposite  direction  to  that  of  the  water, 
and  the  exit  of  the  liquefied  gas  is  in  the  coldest  part  of  the 
condenser — at  the  bottom.  Besides  this,  in  most  waters  the 
pipes  keep  clean  longer  if  fully  immersed.  To  make  a  sub- 
merged condenser  thoroughly  efficient  the  water  should  be 
kept  mechanically  agitated  all  the  time  it  is  at  work,  other- 
wise a  film  of  warm  water  forms  around  the  pipes  and 
prevents  the  full  transference  of  heat  to  the  gradually  rising 
body  of  water  which  overflows  at  the  top  of  the  condenser 
tank.  Fig.  18  shows  a  condenser  of  this  description  of  Eng- 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


59 


lish  make  (it  is  the  left  hand  vessel,  which  is  in  section),  the 
four  spiral  coils  for  the  ammonia  and  the  helical-bladed 
agitator  with  its  driving  wheel  being-  clearly  indicated.  The 
right  hand  vessel  is  similar  in  general  construction,  but  is  a 
refrigerator  or  cooler.  In  condensers  or  refrigerators  of 
this  description  the  agitation  should  only  be  sufficient  to  keep 
the  water  moving  past  the  surface  of  the  coils,  and  should 
not  break  up  the  zones  of  temperature  by  setting  up  vertical 


FlG.   18. — SUBMERGED    CONDENSER — ENGLISH    PATTERN. 

currents,  because  in  such  a  case,  by  making  the  temperature 
more  uniform  throughout,  the  liquid  ammonia  would  not  be 
cooled  so  much  and  the  water  would  go  away  cooler. 

Atmospheric  Condenser. — An  ordinary  form  of  atmos- 
pheric condenser  is  seen  in  Fig.  19,  which  shows  a  stack  of 
fifty-six  tubes  in  four  lines,  with  cast  return  bends  and 
heads,  and  having  four  water  distributors  at  the  head. 


60 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


With  a  condenser  of  this  description  the  evaporation  of 
the  water  flowing-  over  it  may  be  so  great  in  very  dry  climates 
and  under  certain  conditions  as  to  enable  it  to  be  used  over 
and  over  ag-ain  less  the  loss  due  to  evaporation.  On  the  dry 
plains  of  Riverina*  during-  a  g-entle  breeze,  water  at  90°  flow- 
ing- on  to  an  ammonia  condenser  has  been  known  to  leave  the 
bottom  coils  several  degrees  lower  in  temperature,  the  cool- 
ing- effect  of  atmospheric  evaporation  more  than  compensat- 
ing- for  the  heat  taken  up  from  the  ammonia. 

As  the  wTater  must  have  a  downward  flow  over  the  pipes 
in  this  class  of  condenser,  the  g-as  must  enter  at  the  bottom 
and  ascend  as  it  is  being-  condensed  if  it  is  to  travel  in  the 


FlG.    19. — ATMOSPHERIC    CONDENSER — AMERICAN   PATTERN. 

opposite  direction  to  the  water.  This  arrangement,  of  course 
complicates  the  collection  of  the  liquefied  ammonia,  and  in  the 
condensers  of  some  eminent  makers  who  adopt  this  plan  they 
provide  for  the  interception  of  the  condensed  medium  by  con- 
necting- small  pipes  at  every  alternate  bend  of  the  condenser 
which  carry  off  the  ammonia  directly  it  is  liquefied  to  the 
liquid  storag-e  tank,  as  shown  in  the  g-eneral  arrangement  of  a 
De  La  Verg-ne  plant,  Fig-.  20. 

In  most  atmospheric  condensers  of  moderate  size,  how- 
ever, the  g-as  enters  at  the  top,  and  with  the  condensed  liquid 
has  a  continuous  downward  flow.  In  order  to  g-et  the  benefit 

*  The    country   between  the  Murray  and   Murrumbidg-ee  rivers   in 
Australia. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


61 


62 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


FlG.   21. —  COMPOUND   SUBMERGED  CONDENSER — CORRECT    PRINCIPLP:. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


63 


FlG.  22. — COMPOUND   SUBMERGED   CONDENSER — WRONG    PRINCIPLE. 


64  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION, 

of  cold  water  to  the  later  stages  of  condensation,  and  thus 
reduce  the  liquid  medium  as  low  as  possible,  while  both  the 
external  and  internal  fluids  have  a  downward  flow  with  regard 
to  the  coils,  several  devices  have  been  adopted.  In  one  of 
these  a  primary  condenser  is  submerged  in  a  tank  which  is 
fed  by  the  overflow  from  an  atmospheric  condenser  above, 
and  the  medium,  after  being  cooled  in  the  lower  coils,  passes 
up  again  to  the  top  of  the  colder  condenser  overhead.  The 
advantages  of  such  an  arrangement  when  the  scale  of  the 
plant  warrants  it  are  obvious.  In  other  cases  builders 
adopt  two  or  more  stages  of  submerged  condensers,  some- 
times as  in  Fig.  21,  and  at  other  times  as  in  Fig.  22;  but  it  is 
not  quite  clear  how  any  gain  can  result  from  the  increased 
complication  in  the  latter  case,  where  each  tank  has  a  separ- 
ate water  supply  in  parallel,  and  the  proper  arrangement  to 
save  water  is  as  Fig.  21,  which  shows  the  same  condensers 
with  a  water  supply  in  series.  Fig.  23  shows  a  two-story  at- 
mospheric condenser  designed  by  the  author  for  hot  climate 
and  scarcity  of  water,  in  which  the  gas  flows  down  through 
the  lower  coils  first  and  then  passes  from  the  bottom  right  up 
to  the  top  of  the  upper  coils,  the  liquid  being  drawn  off  separ- 
ately at  the  bottom  of  each  coil.  In  such  an  arrangement 
the  upper  coils  may  be  of  smaller  tubes  than  the  lower  ones. 
Evaporative  Condensers.— If  the  coils  of  an  atmospheric 
condenser  are  covered  with  a  light  fabric  which  is  kept 
wet,  while  an  artificial  current  of  air,  propelled  by  a 
fan,  is  passed  through  them,  so  that  a  powerful  evapora- 
tion is  set  up,  it  is  possible  for  the  water  to  be  as  cool 
at  the  bottom  as  at  the  top,  just  as  in  the  instance  occur- 
ring naturally  in  a  specially  dry  climate  before  referred 
to.  In  such  cases  the  gaseous  and  liquid  medium  may  flow 
downward  and  still  have  its  final  cooling  effected  by  the 
minimum  temperature  of  the  condensing  water.  The  econ- 
omy or  otherwise  of  such  an  arrangement  depends  entirely 
upon  the  cost  per  gallon  of  the  water  and  its  initial  tempera- 
ture, as  compared  with  the  cost  of  the  power  required  to 
drive  the  fan. 

THE   KE-USK    OF    CONDENSING   WATER. 

Although  submerged  condensers  require  a   large    sup- 
ply of  water   they   are   often   used   where   water   is   costly, 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


65 


FlG.   23. — TWO-STORY  WATER   SAVING  ATMOSPHERIC    CONDENSER 
AUSTRALIAN    PATTERN. 


(5) 


66 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION, 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  57 

but  under  an  arrangement  by  which  the  water  is  used  over 
and  over  again.  There  are  many  arrangements  differing  in 
detail  by  which  this  may  be  effected,  but  they  all  turn  upon 
the  transfer  of  the  heat  taken  up  by  the  water,  partly  to  the 
atmosphere  and  partly  through  the  evaporation  of  a  portion 
of  the  water  itself.  The  simplest  arrangement,  and  the  one 
in  most  common  use,  is  probably  a  louvred  tower  through 
which  the  air  circulates  while  the  water  descends  in  a  rain 
or  spray,  the  shower  in  some  cases  being  broken  up  by 
baffles  consisting  of  layers  of  foliage  or  by  screens  of  special 
mechanical  construction. 

In  other  cases  the  water  is  played  upward  from  innumer- 
able fine  jets  over  a  water-tight  floor,  and  the  diffusion  into 
the  finest  spray  brings  every  particle  into  contact  with  the 
air.  In  special  cases  evaporation  is  accelerated  and  cooling 
is  effected  by  an  upward  current  or  blast  of  air  from  a  fan  or 
air  propeller  through  a  tower  with  closed  sides,  which  is 
stacked  in  some  cases  with  porous  pottery  or  metal  pipes 
and  in  other  cases  with  sheets  of  woven  wire  cloth.  The 
water  is  sprayed  at  the  top  of  the  tower  bv  a  Barker's  mill 
arrangement  or  by  perforated  pipes,  and  is  divided  and  sub- 
divided at  every  separate  layer  by  the  obstructions  placed 
for  the  purpose.  These  processes  of  cooling  are  used  in 
other  industries  than  those  connected  with  artificial  refriger- 
ation, notably  for  condensing  steam  engines  which  require  a 
continuous  supply  of  cool  water.  A  very  full  description  of 
them  would,  therefore,  be  rather  beyond  the  scope  of  this  work. 

Fig.  24  is  an  arrangement  of  an  evaporative  condenser  in 
a  cooling  tower  erected  at  such  an  elevation  that  the  water 
flows  direct  to  the  surface  condenser  of  the  steam  engine, 
and  the  whole  circulation  is  maintained  by  one  pump  coupled 
to  the  air  pump,  the  engine  for  which  also  drives  the  fan. 


68  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


CHAPTER  XL 

THE  REFRIGERATOR. 


The  refrigerator,  which  corresponds  to  the  boiler  in  a 
steam  engine  system,  generally  consists  of  a  series  of  tubes, 
through  the  metal  of  which  the  heat  abstracted  from  the  sub- 
stance being  cooled  is  conducted  to  the  medium  which  flows 
through  them,  and  this  heat  is  transferred  to  the  medium 
under  two  distinctive  systems  of  practical  refrigeration. 

Under  the  first  or  brine  system,  as  it  is  termed,  there 
are  coils  of  tubes  arranged  in  a  way  similar  to  those  of  the  con- 
denser (see  left  hand  .vessel  of  Fig.  18)  which  are  immersed 
in  a  tank  of  non-congealable  liquid,  generally  a  solution  of 
ordinary  salt  (chloride  of  sodium)  or  chloride  of  calcium; 
from  this  liquid  heat  is  taken  up  by  the  refrigerating  medium. 
This  brine  derives  its  heat  either  from  vessels  which  are 
immersed  in  it,  as  when  ice  is  to  be  made,  or  from  the  atmos 
phere  which  surrounds  it,  as  when  chambers  are  to  be  refrig- 
erated. In  the  latter  case  tubes  or  troughs  are  placed  in  the 
air  of  the  chamber  through  which  the  cold  brine  flows,  and 
this  cold  brine  abstracts  the  heat  from  the  room. 

Fig.  25  represents  an  ice  making  tank  as  filled  with 
brine  in  which  the  ice  molds  are  inserted.  The  centrifugal 
pump  at  the  right  hand  side  draws  the  brine  from  under  the 
false  bottom  and  delivers  it  over  the  top  of  the  end  diaphragm, 
and  so  creates  a  perfect  circulation,  which  can  be  controlled 
by  regulating  the  openings  in  the  false  floor.  The  expansion 
coil  is  shown  as  in  one  length,  the  only  joints  being  the  flange 
connections  to  the  manifold  expansion  and  return  valves. 
Instead  of  having  a  centrifugal  pump  for  circulation  within  the 
tank,  it  is  evident  that  a  force  pump  could  be  employed  to  cir- 
culate the  brine  through  a  series  of  pipe  coils  on  the  walls  or 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


69 


ceiling"  of  a  chamber,  in  order  to  withdraw  the  heat  from  the 
same  and  its  contents. 

Under  the  second  or  direct  expansion  system  the  gas  in 
the  refrigerator  coils  takes  up  heat  by  direct  conduction  from 
the  air  of  the  rooms  to  be  cooled.  This  transference  of  heat 
may  take  place  in  the  cold  chamber  itself,  over  the  walls  or 
ceilings  of  which  the  expansion  pipes  may  be  laid.  Fig.  20 
shows  how  the  De  La  Vergne  Company  increase  the  surfaces 
of  these  pipes  by  stringing  on  them  a  series  of  discs  to  act  on 
the  same  principle  as  the  "gills"  of  heating  apparatus.  Air 
may  also  be  cooled  by  direct  contact  with  the  surfaces  of  the 
refrigerator  in  a  separate  chamber,  and  then  be  made  to  flow 
into  the  rooms  to  be  cooled  by  a  natural  or  forced  current. 
This  was  the  subject  of  a  long  since  expired  patent  by  the 
author. 


FlG.  25. — BRINE    REFRIGERATING    TANK    AND    CENTRIFUGAL    AGITATOR. 

In  another  system  of  cooling  chambers,  which  is  exten- 
sively adopted  by  the  Linde  company,  the  refrigerator  cools 
the  brine,  and  the  brine  cools  a  series  of  iron  plates,  alter- 
nately immersed  in  and  withdrawn  from  it,  which  are 
arranged  as  revolving  discs.  These  metallic  surfaces  cool 
the  air  which  circulates  between  them,  and  transfers  to  the 
brine  from  the  air  the  heat  which  it  has  abstracted  from  the 
gpods  to  be  refrigerated.  In  this  latter  case  there  is  a  four- 
fold transference  of  heat  and  consequent  loss  of  power, 
besides  a  great  drying  action,  but  there  are  compensating 
advantages  arising  from  the  ease  with  which  the  circulation 
of  the  air  can  be  controlled  and  directed  bv  channels 


70  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

wherever  required.  With  direct  expansion  there  is  only  a 
double  transfer  of  heat,  that  is,  from  the  goods  to  the  air  and 
from  the  air  to  the  refrigerator;  and  on  these  grounds  it  is 
the  more  economical  arrangement,  especially  as  regards 
expenditure  of  power  for  a  given  amount  of  heat  abstracted. 
The  brine  system  has  its  own  advantages  in  special  cases, 
one  of  which  is  the  great  facility  which  it  affords  for  storing 
negative  energy  by  having  large  tanks  of  cold  brine  in  reserve. 
Such  reservoirs,  by  their  capacity  for  taking  up  heat,  can  for 
more  or  less  time  be  used  in  case  of  stoppage  of  the  machine. 
Another  advantage  claimed  for  the  brine  system  is  the 
absence  of  danger  by  the  escape  of  ammonia  into  the  cold 
chambers. 

With  the  very  perfect  system  of  jointing  pipes  now 
adopted  by  the  best  refrigerating  engineers,  however,  there 
is  probably  more  of  sentiment  than  reality  underlying  the 
fear  of  danger  from  leakage  of  ammonia  which  is  felt  by 
some  persons  with  direct  expansion.  The  brine  system 
affords  greater  facilities  for  subdividing  the  cooling  power  of 
a  large  machine  among  a  great  number  of  separate  opera- 
tions by  reducing  the  care  and  attention  required  at  the 
expansion  valves,  but  an  expert  would  hardly  decide  whether 
to  use  brine  or  ammonia  circulation,  or  both  combined,  in  any 
particular  industry  involving  the  use  of  artificial  cold  until 
he  had  the  whole  of  the  requirements  before  him. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  71 


CHAPTER  XII. 

THE  SURFACE    REQUIRED   FOR    EXCHANGE  OF 

TEMPERATURES     IN    CONDENSERS 

AND    REFRIGERATORS. 

There  may  be  scope  for  a  great  deal  of  personal  pre- 
dilection in  connection  with  the  various  patterns  of  condensers 
and  refrigerators  thus  far  referred  to,  and  which  manufact- 
urers avail  themselves  of  to  the  fullest  extent,  often  influ- 
enced, perhaps,  by  a  reputation  attached  to  their  "system," 
and  also  by  their  available  tools  and  appliances.  Further 
than  this  any  firm  having-  once  settled  on  a  particular  pattern 
or  method  of  construction  would  be  loath  to  change  it,  if  the 
advantages  of  doing1  so  were  at  all  open  to  question. 

When,  however,  it  comes  to  the  amount  of  surface  to 
be  provided  for  the  conduction  of  heat  that  has  to  be  trans- 
ferred, and  the  sectional  pipe  area  for  the  passage  of  the  gas, 
we  still  find  that  personal  fancy  and  urules-of-thumb"  largely 
prevail,  although  the  pros  and  cons  admit  of  more  exact 
calculation,  and  the  effect  of  any  variation  in  the  proportions 
of  such  parts  is  more  easily  seen  and  understood. 

Now  the  function  of  all  condensers  and  refrigerators  is 
to  transmit  heat  from  one  substance  to  another,  generally 
from  a  gas  or  vapor  to  a  liquid,  or  vice  versa,  and  through 
the  walls  of  the  apparatus.  The  amount  of  heat  so  trans- 
mitted is  principally  dependent  upon  two  conditions,  which 
are:  First,  The  difference  in  temperature  of  the  two  sub- 
stances; and,  Second,  The  superficial  area  of  the  surfaces 
of  transmission.  To  a  large  extent  also  the  result  is  depend- 
ent upon  the  velocity  at  which  the  gases,  vapors  or  liquids 
move  over  the  condensing  surfaces,  in  a  lesser  degree  on  the 
relative  conductivity  of  the  substances  themselves,  and  to 
some  extent  on  the  character  of  the  metal  walls  of  the  appa- 


72  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

ratus.  If  it  were  not  that  in  practice  these  metal  walls  are 
relatively  very  thin  the  conducting-  power  of  the  metal  would 
be  of  much  greater  importance  than  is  actually  the  case. 

It  may  be  taken  as  an  axiom  that  the  amount  of  surface 
necessarv  in  any  condenser  or  refrigerator  is  directly  as  the 
number  of  units  of  heat  to  be  transmitted,  and  inversely  as 
the  difference  of  temperature  which  is  permissible  between 
the  two  substances.  The  importance  of  having-  sufficient 
surface  thus  becomes  apparent  if  it  is  desired  to  cool  as  low 
as  possible,  and  to  utilize  the  maximum  amount  of  the  ma- 
chine's work. 

The  walls  of  the  condensers  and  refrigerators  are 
almost  invariably  now  of  metal  tube,  copper  being-  "taboo" 
for  use  with  ammonia.  The  relative  conducting  powers  of 
the  principal  metals,  taking  gold  as  a  standard,  are  as  fol- 

^OWS.                                             Relative  con-  Relative  con- 
Metal,                       ducting-  power.  Metal.                          ducting-  power. 

Gold 1,000  Cast  iron 562 

Platinum 981  Wrought  iron 374 

Silver 973  Zinc 363 

Copper 892  Tin 304 

Brass  749  Lead 180 

It  will  be  noted  from  the  above  that  wrought  iron,  the 
material  usually  employed  for  ammonia,  is  at  a  considerable 
disadvantage  when  compared  with  copper,  which  can  be  used 
with  carbonic  anhydride  and  sulphur  dioxide  machines. 
This  difference  of  374  to  892  is,  relatively,  very  great,  and 
would  require  serious  consideration  if  large  masses  of  metal 
were  concerned.  Actually  it  is  of  small  importance  in  tubu- 
lar condensers,  owing  to  the  metal  being  so  thin  that  it  is 
practically  at  the  same  temperature  on  both  sides  of  the  tube. 

With  regard  to  the  conducting  power  of  the  gases  them- 
selves, there  do  not  seem  at  present  to  be  any  records  avail- 
able that  have  been  obtained  by  means  of  actual  trials 
with  working  machinery,  and  carried  out  with  exact  instru- 
ments in  the  hands  of  careful  observers. 

Laboratory  experiments  have  been  carried  out  by  Pro- 
fessor Magnus  upon  the  four  following  gases:  Atmospheric 
air,  hydrogen,  carbonic  acid  and  ammonia.  A  large  tube  was 
inserted  in  a  glass  flask  containing  water  at  the  boiling  point, 
-a  delicate  thermometer  was  fitted  in  the  center  of  this  large 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  73 

tube,  and  smaller  tubes  enabled  the  larger  one  to  be  filled 
with  the  several  gases.  The  time  was  noted  which  was 
required  for  heat  to  be  transmitted  through  the  several 
media,  with  the  following-  results: 


Name  of  Gas. 

Rise  of  Temperature. 

Atmospheric  air  

From  20°  to  80° 

From  20°  to  90° 

3.5    minutes 
1.0 

2.25 
3.5          " 

5.25  minutes 
1.4 
6.3 

5.5 

Hydrogen  ... 

Carbonic  acid 

Ammonia 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  that  hydrogen  shows  an 
extraordinary  power  of  conduction,  and  that  carbonic  acid  is 
sluggish,  while  the  conditions  appertaining- to  ammonia  seem 
to  correspond  so  closely  to  those  of  air,  that  the  tables  which 
have  been  obtained  from  experiments  made  on  heating-  air  by 
hot  water  pipes  may  possibly  be  sufficiently  accurate  for  all 
practical  purposes,  if  applied  to  the  parallel  operation  of  heat- 
ing-ammonia g-as  in  the  coils  of  a  refrig-erator. 

According-  to  Box  the  loss  of  heat  from  the  contact  of  air 
with  cylinders  two  inches  in  diameter  is  .728  units  per  square 
foot  for  one  degree  of  difference,  the  efficiency  falling-  with 
larger  pipe  and  rising  as  the  difference  of  temperature 
increases.  When  the  difference  of  temperature  reaches 
150°,  more  than  two  units,  instead  of  .72  of  a  unit,  is  trans- 
mitted for  every  square  foot  of  surface  and  degree  of  dif- 
ference. On  page  128  (third  edition)  of  the  "Compend  of 
Mechanical  Refrigeration,"  this  factor  (M)  is  given  as  .5 
unit  without  any  reason  being  assigned,  and  if  initial  cost  is 
of  less  importance  than  permanent  efficiency,  it  is  certainly 
taking  the  safe  side  to  make  it  so  low  in  figuring  out  for 
either  a  condenser  or  refrigerator. 

When  hot,  dry  gas  is  cooled  down  and  becomes  a  satur- 
ated vapor  one  would  suppose  that  the  data  obtained  from 
the  surface  condenser  of  a  steam  engine  would  be  most 
applicable  to  the  case  of  proportioning  the  condensing  sur- 
face for  refrigerating  machines.  From  some  experiments 
made  by  Mr.  Nichols,  recorded  in  D.  K.  Clark's  large  manual, 
the  following  results  appear  and  show  the  heat  transmitted 
both  with  horizontal  and  vertical  tubes,  and  also  with  differ- 


74 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


ent  velocities  of  condensing"  water  flowing-  over  their  surfaces: 


Vertical  Tubes. 

Horizontal  Tubes. 

Velocity  of  condens- 
ing- water  in  feet 
per  minute 

81 

279 

390 

78 

307        415 

Heat  transmitted  per 
hour  per  sq.  foot 
for  each  degree  dif- 
ference in  T.  U.  .  . 

295 

383 

401 

422 

530     |  600 

The  radiating-  or  absorbing-  power  of  iron,  according-  to 
Peclet,  equals  .56  of  a  B.  T.  U.  per  square  foot  for  each  degree 
Fahrenheit  difference  in  temperature,  but  it  is  evident  this 
g-eneral  statement  is  of  no  value  for  practical  application. 

The  following*  table  shows  how  the  conducting-  power  of 
cylinders  falls  off  as  they  increase  in  diameter  from  two 
inches  to  eig-ht  inches,  the  units  being-  the  number  transferred 
per  square  foot  for  each  degree  difference  in  temperature: 


Diameter 
in  Inches. 

2 
3 
4 
5 


Heat 
in  Units. 

.7280 
.6256 
.5747 
.5440 


Diameter 
in  Inches. 

6 

7 
8 


Heat 
in  Units. 

.5230 

.5087 
.4978 


As  this  table  does  not  include  cylinders  less  than  one 
inch  diameter,  the  ratios  actually  given  have  been  utilized  in 
constructing-  a  curve,  from  which  it  appears  that  a  cylinder 
one  inch  diameter,  or  say  three-fourths  inch  iron  pipe,  would 
probably  transmit  .84  or  .85  of  a  unit  per  square  foot  for  1 
difference. 

The  data  given  all  go  to  show  that  the  preference  for 
small  pipe  is  established  on  bed-rock  truths,  and  they  f  urther 
sug-g-est  that  possibly  the  liquid  ammonia  is  often  withdrawn 
from  the  condenser  at  the  temperature  of  liquefaction  througii 
being-  run  off  at  once  to  the  liquid  vessel  as  soon  as  it  is  con- 
densed, when  it  mig-ht  have  been  cooled  a  few  degrees  lower 
with  advantag-e  if  left  in  the  condenser  long-er. 

Refrig-erating-  authorities  have  deprecated  the  use  of  the 
bottom  coils  of  the  condenser  as  the  permanent  and  only  liquid 
vessel,  and  with  good  reason,  but  it  is  possible  that  if  a  very 
short  extra  coil  of  small  pipe  between  the  g-as  condenser  and 
the  liquid  bottle  was  so  arrang-ed  as  to  be  always  kept  full  of 
the  running-  liquid,  either  by  means  of  a  siphon  or  some 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


75 


other  device,  it  would  enable  the  liquid  to  be  brought  down  to 
within  lc  or  2°  of  the  temperature  of  the  condensing-  water. 
The  importance  of  this  is  not  relatively  great  because  after  it 
is  once  liquefied  there  is  no  more  latent  heat  to  remove;  but 
if  we  take  the  specific  heat  of  liquid  ammonia  at  1.2  even  then 
six  units  would  be  removed  from  every  pound  of  liquid  pass- 
ing- for  a  reduction  in  temperature  of  only  5°. 

A  point  established  by  the  steam  condenser  experiments 
is  the  great  superiority  of  horizontal  as  compared  with  verti- 
cal tubes  and  the  importance  of  velocity  in  the  movement  of 
the  condensing1  water.  Makers  of  vertical  tubular  ammonia 
condensers  appear  to  be  very  few  in  number,  and  results 
from  their  practice  would  be  very  interesting-  for  comparison 
if  exact  tests  had  been  made  and  were  available. 

The  following  table  shows  the  effective  surface  of  stand- 
ard pipe  used  in  the  construction  of  condensers  and  refrig- 
erating coils: 


Inside  Diam. 

Outside   Diam. 
in  inches. 

External  Cir- 
cumference in 
inches. 

i  Length  requir'd 
for  a  sq.  ft. 

Surface   in    sq. 
ft.  of  1  ft.  in 
length. 

1 

1.315 

4.134 

2.903 

.344 

IX 

1.66 

5.215 

2.301 

.434 

V/2 

1.90                 5.969 

2.201 

.497 

2 

2.375               7.461 

1.611 

.612 

2# 

2.875               9.032 

1.382 

.752 

3 

3.50                10.966 

1.091 

.911 

3# 

4.0                  12.566 

0.955 

1.074 

4 

4.5 

14.137 

0.849 

1.178 

. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  thermal  units 
to  be  abstracted  to  be  equivalent  to  one  ton  refrigeration  in 
twenty-four  hours : 


Per  Day. 

Per  Hour. 

Per  Minute. 

American  Ton 
English  Ton 

284,000 
312,080 

11,833 
26,060 

197.2 
216.7 

From  the  information  contained  in  the  preceding  tables 
it  is  possible  to  calculate  the  length  of  pipe  required  for  any 
given  amount  of  refrigeration  when  the  temperatures  of  the 
two  substances  on  the  inside  and  out  are  known  or  assumed. 
As  a  practical  supplement  to  this  part  of  the  whole  refrigera- 


76 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


tion  question,  the  actual  proportions  of  a  number  of  con- 
densers by  different  makers  have  been  collected  and  are 
given  in  tabular  form  for  easy  reference  and  comparison,  as 
follows: 


Different  condensers. 

Lineal  feet  of 
pipe. 

Size  of  pipe. 

Superficial  feet 
per  ton  ice 
making-. 

Superficial  feet 
per  ton  refrig-- 
eration  (or 
equivalent)  . 

ATMOSPHERIC  CON- 
DENSERS. 

*  "Antarctic,"  Sydney 
*        "               India  .  .  . 

218 
{  133 
'/  133 

IK 

IK 

94.6 
66.1  \ 

57.  7  f 

(47.3) 

Buffalo  Co.,  specially 
made  for  Australia. 
*  "Hercules,"  Sydney. 
*"De  La  Vergne".*. 
*"Frick"  (proposed). 
"Consolidated"  (from 
printed  reports)  
As    recommended    in 
'  '  Compend    of    Me- 
chanical   Refriger- 
ation. "  

75 
114 
40 
62 

100 
115 

IK 

2 

IK 
i 

IK 

123.8 
99  8 

(61.9) 
37.2 
49.4 
24.8 
27.1 

34.0 
49  9 

From  experience  of  E. 
T.  Skinkle 

58  to  160 

36  to  99 

Preference    of    E.    T. 
Skinkle. 

150 

i 

516 

E.    T.    Skinkle,  aver- 
age   of    four    plants 
from   25  to  100  tons, 
tabled  by  E.T.  Skin- 
kle   

142 

i 

01.0 

48  8 

Average  of  three  pi  ants 
from  75  to  150  tons, 
tabled  by  E.T.  Skin- 
kle 

99 

49  9 

SUBMERGED    CON- 
DENSERS. 

Recommended  by  E.T. 
Skinkle. 

100 

i 

34  4 

Recorded    by     E.     T. 
Skinkle   as    average 
of    eight    machines 
from  10  to  140  tons.  . 

PIPE   REQUIRED 
IN    FREEZING  TANKS. 

Average   of    twelve 
plants  from  2  to  60 
tons.  (E.T.  Skinkle) 
'  '  Con  sol  i  d  ated  ,  '  '  from 
records  as  printed.  . 
"Antarctic,"  Sydney. 

89 

\  327 

(272 

320 
292 

i 

i 

IK 

i 

IK 

112.  ) 
118.  f 

110. 
126. 

30.6 

Machines  made  for  Australian  use.     Other  authorities  borrowed. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


77 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


COCKS,   VALVES,   PIPES    AND    JOINTS. 


COCKS   VERSUS   VALVES. 

Some  makers  pride  themselves  on  the  construction  of 
their  cocks,  while  others  are  thankful  that,  unlike  their 
neig-hbors,  they  use  nothing-  but  valves.  Every  refrig-era- 
tion  plant  requires  cocks  or  stop-valves  in  great  numbers 
besides  the  most  important  one  which  controls  the  connec- 
tion from  the  condenser  to  the  refrig-erator  and  constitutes 
the  last  of  the  four  principal  features  of  the  whole  plant. 
These  cocks  or  valves  are  required  for  both  the  forward  and 


FIG.  26.  FIG.  27.  FIG.  28. 

back  pressures  and  much   importance  is  attached  to  their 
construction. 

During-  the  early  days  of  refrig-eration,  cocks  were  g-ener- 
ally  adopted  which  were  made  of  cast  iron  with  steel  plug's, 
and  most  careful  workmanship  was  required  to  secure  a  per- 
fectly tig-ht  job.  A  similar  arrangement  is  still  used  by  some 
leading-  makers,  but  the  preference  on  the  whole  seems  at 
present  to  be  given  to  the  use  of  valves.  Of  the  many  well 


78 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


known  patterns  now  made  for  regulating-  the  supply  of 
ammonia  to  the  refrigerator  the  most  notable  perhaps  are 
the  Frick  valve,  as  Fig-.  26,  and  the  De  La  Verg-ne  cock,  Fig-. 
27.  The  most  simple  and  reliable  arrang-ement  of  expan- 
sion device  for  ordinary  purposes,  however,  appears  to  be 
a  hard  steel  valve  with  a  long-  taper  in  a  casing-  of  iron  or 
steel,  as  Fig-.  28.  (For  latest  Frick  valve  see  Chapter  XX.) 
In  Australia  ammonia  valves  were  formerly  made  from  a 
solid  block  of  hammered  steel,  and  were  in  fact  a  well  known 


rfn  i  rrn 


FlG.    29. — FORGED    STEEL    AMMONIA    MANIFOLD  VALVE. 

hydraulic  fitting-  modified  to  adapt  it  for  ammonia.  One  of 
these — as  made  in  manifold  for  connecting-  up  the  return 
ends  to  four  coils  in  a  refrigerator — is  shown  by  Fig-.  29. 
Such  valves  are  of  course  more  expensive  to  make  than  those 
with  cast  or  malleable  cast  shells,  but  on  account  of  their 
intrinsic  merits  they  were  larg-ely  adopted  in  hig-h  class  work. 
Fig1.  30  shows  a  solid  steel  main  stop-valve  with  a  by-pass 
valve,  as  used  for  the  inlet  and  outlet  of  the  compressor. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


79 


PIPKS  AND  JOINTS. 

The  four  principal  factors  in  the  constitution  of  a  refrig- 
erating- plant  so  far  referred  to  would  be  useless  if  they  were 
not  connected  tog-ether  bv  conduits  or  pipes.  Owing-  to  the 


FlG.  30. — FORGED   STEEL    MAIN    VALVE   WITH    BY-PASS. 

action  of  ammonia  on  copper  and  its  alloys,  as  already 
referred  to,  iron  or  steel  must  be  employed  for  'ammonia  fit- 
ting's. Lap-welded  tubes  are  preferred  to  cast  iron  pipes 


FIG.  31.  FIG.  32.  FIG.  33. 

for  this  purpose  owing-  to  the  risk  of  leakag-e  throug-h  poros- 
ity or  sponginess  in  the  casting's.  Mention  has  before  been 
made  of  the  necessity  for  absolutely  tight  joints,  and  great 


80  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

ingenuity  has  been  expended  in  devising-  every  conceivable 
arrangement  of  joint  possible  for  connecting-  the  separate 
leng-ths  of  wroug-ht  iron  pipes,  often  no  doubt  in  order  that 
makers  mig-ht  either  have  a  patent  or  a  claim  for  a  system 


FIG.  34.— HUDSON'S  PATENT.  FIG.  35.  FIG.  36. 


of  their  own.  Figs.  31  to  43  show  a  number  of  these  devices 
which  almost  explain  themselves;  some  of  them  have  been 
invented  and  patented  more  than  once.* 


FlG.    37. — AULDJO'S    PATENT    JOINT. 

More  loss  and  trouble  are  often  caused  by  cheap  joints 
than  would  pay  for  the  highest  class  of  fittings  in  the  first 
instance,  and  for  a  refrigerating  plant,  it  is  safe  to  sav,  iioth- 


FIG.  38.          AULDJO'S  PATENT  OTHER  FORMS.         FIG.  39. 

ing  is  likely  to  be  so  dear  as  so-called  cheap  joints.     Perhaps 
the  very  best  all-round  joint  yet  introduced  for  welded  tubes, 

*The  joint,  Fig-.  40,  has  recently  been  patented  in  New  South  Wales 
by  Doug-las  Kyle.  It  was  invented  years  ag-o  by  the  late  David  Boyle, 
and  known  as  the  Boyle  joint,  being-  patented  in  1876.  But  strange  to 
say  it  was  illustrated  in  the  German  Der  Constructur  in  1868. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


81 


though  not  the  cheapest  in  first  cost,  is  that  shown  by 
Fig-s.  42  and  43,  where  the  pipe  is  secured  to  the  flange  by 
sweating  it  with  solder,  as  well  as  the  screw  thread,  and  the 
flanges  are  tongued  and  grooved  together. 

This  joint  has   been   made   in  Sydney  for  over   thirty 
years,  having  been  introduced  by  Mr.  E.  D.  Nicolle,  and  has 


FIG.  40.  FIG.  41. 

since  been  found  to  be  the  best  by  very  large  American 
builders  of  refrigerating  machinery,  who  adopt  it  as  their 
own,  with  a  slightly  modified  shape  of  flange,  but  with  the 
same  male  and  female  joint  and  recess  for  a  metallic  or  other 
grommet. 


FIG.  42.  AX    AUSTRALIAN    AMMONIA    JOINT.         FlG.   43. 

ELECTRIC    WELDING. 

The  introduction  of  electric  welding  by  which  pipes 
can  now  be  made  up  into  long  continuous  coils  has  been  a 
great  boon  to  makers  of  refrigerating  machinery,  and  has 
enabled  joints  to  be  largely  dispensed  with  in  out-of-the-way 
places,  where  a  leak  would  be  difficult  to  detect  and  stop. 

(6) 


82  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

In  shops  where  the  amount  of  coil  work  turned  out  does 
not  warrant  the  outlay  for  an  electric  welding  plant,  wrought 
iron  pipes  of  good  quality  may  be  successfully  welded  in  an 
ordinary  fire,  after  the  two  ends  have  been  machined  so  as 
to  make  a  male  and  female  cone.  A  special  mandril  should 
be  introduced  during  the  swaging.  Long  lengths  so  treated, 
and  afterward  bent  on  the  welds  have  stood  the  test  press- 
ure of  1,500  pounds  per  square  inch,  as  well  as  electrically 
welded  tubes. 

SEVERAL   DESCRIPTIONS    OF    COILS   EMPLOYED. 

When  all  the  separate  lengths  of  tube  required  for  one 
section  of  a  refrigerator  or  condenser  are  welded  up  into  a 
continuous  length  they  can  be  easily  bent  into  the  kind  of 
coil  required,  whether  a  plain  helix  or  spiral,  as  in  Figs.  18, 
21  and  22,  or  an  oblong  spiral,  as  in  Fig.  23,  and  the  several 
turns  of  the  coils  can  be  laid  as  closely  together  vertically  as 
desired;  but  the  horizontal  distance  of  the  two  sides  apart 
must  be  greater,  being  regulated  by  the  radius  of  the  bends 
at  the  ends.  When,  however,  a  zigzag  arrangement  with  ver- 
tical returns  is  desired,  then  the  several  lengths  must  be 
spaced  wider  apart  vertically  on  account  of  these  bends  in 
the  tube;  and  in  order  to  get  the  greatest  number  of  lengths 
in  the  space  available  the  inclined  arrangement,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  25,  is  often  adopted.  This  design  is  in  some  respects 
objectionable  because  the  liquid  must  be  all  evaporated  in  the 
first  length  and  bend  unless  the  pressure  is  sufficient  to  drive 
it  up-hill  to  the  next  bend.  The  same  objection  does  not 
apply  to  these  coils  laid  horizontally,  and  condensers  are 
sometimes  made  with  vertical  headers  for  the  main  inlet 
and  outlet,  connected  by  a  number  of  zigzag  coils  placed  hori- 
zontally one  over  the  other,  with  or  without  valves.  These 
condensers  have  the  advantage  of  giving  a  short  run,  a  large 
sectional  area  of  passage  and  a  slow  velocity  for  the  gas, 
hence  they  cause  very  little  increase  of  pressure  by  friction. 

When  a  zigzag  coil  is  made  of  straight  tubes  and  separ- 
ate returns,  as  in  Fig.  19,  instead  of  with  the  bends  in  the 
tubes  themselves,  a  condenser  or  refrigerator  with  a  given 
number  of  lengths  above  one  another  can  be  kept  much 
lower  than  otherwise,  because  the  return  ends  may  be  cast 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  83 

much  closer  than  the  wrought  pipes  could  safely  be  bent  to. 
Zigzag-  coils  made  in  both  ways  are  much  used  for  the  floors 
and  sides  of  refrigerating-  chambers,  those  made  with  the 
bends  in  the  pipe  itself  requiring  much  fewer  connections. 
When  built  up  from  separate  lengths  they  are  generally 
connected  at  the  returns  in  one  or  other  of  the  following 
ways : 

1.  Cast   metal  returns,  and  the  screwed  and  soldered 
male  and  female  flanges  with  metallic  grommet,  as  in   Fig. 
31,  all  connected  up  by  bolts. 

2.  Cast  metal  returns,  with  screwed  socket  and  addi- 
tional recess  for  packing,  the  ends  of  the  pipes  screwed  hard 
into  the  sockets,  and  followed  up  by  a  packing  ring  and  a 
gland  running  on  the  thread  of  the  pipe,  as  shown  in  Fig.  32. 

3.  Similar  to  2,  with  the  ends  of  the  tubes  screwed  into 
socket,  but  with  the  gland  to  compress  the  packing  running 
on  the  plain  body  of  the  tube,  and  drawn  up  by  two  bolts,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  31. 

4.  Cast  returns  screwed  right  and  left-hand  alternately 
and  formed  with  a  recess  containing  soft  metal  packing  that 
can  be  closed  up  by  a  set  screw,  and  the  pipes  screwed  right 
and  left  handed  at  opposite  ends,  as  shown  in  Fig.  41.     (The 
author  has  no  personal  experience  with  this  joint,  but  it  is 
claimed  as  a  great  advantage  that  any  pipe  or  return  can  be 
easily  changed  under  this  system,  and  the  whole  kept  easily 
tight.) 

5.  But  when  the  returns  are  bent  on  the  separate  tubes 
themselves,  then   the   joints  on  the  straight  portion  of  the 
tubes  may  be  made  with  any  form  of  flange  or  socket  as  used 
in  any  other  position.     Figs.  34  and  35  show  the  joint  pat- 
ented and   used  by  a  large  firm  of  Sydney  engineers,  the 
ends  of  the  pipes  being  machined  to  fit  into  a  double-grooved 
socket. 

6.  With    continuously  welded    coils   the   connection  to 
manifolds  or  headers  is  frequently  made  by  an  Australian 
flange,  as  shown  in  Figs.  42  and  43. 


84  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

THE  USE  OF   OIL   IN   REFRIGERATING  SYSTEMS. 

SUPPLY    OF    OIL   TO    THE    COMPRESSOR. 

In  the  early  days  of  ammonia  compression,  and  before 
the  accurate  mechanical  construction  now  possible  and  usual 
was  put  into  such  machines,  compressors  would  not  deliver 
so  large  a  percentage  of  the  cylinder's  total  volume  as  they 
do  now.  The  pistons  were,  no  doubt,  not  so  accurately 
fitted  that  the  ammonia  itself  would  furnish  all  the  lubrica- 
tion required,  and  the  clearance  was  excessive.  With  a  view 
to  the  expulsion  of  the  whole  cylinder's  contents  a  system 
of  compression  was  adopted  for  ammonia  similar  to  that 
used  with  wet  air  compressors,  and  in  some  very  high  class 
machines  now  made  the  cylinder  at  every  stroke  receives 
an  injection  of  liquid;  and  as  this  requires  a  substance  which 
will  not  saponify  under  the  action  of  ammonia,  special  grades 
of  hydrocarbon  or  mineral  oil  are  prepared  for  the  purpose. 

The  advocates  of  such  an  arrangement  contend  that  the 
oil  not  only  fills  all  the  interstices  resulting  from  bad  design, 
and  reduces  the  effective  clearance  to  ;///,  however  great  the 
mechanical  clearance  may  be,  but  that  it  takes  up  a  great 
deal  of  heat  from  the  gas;  and  thus  bv  reducing  the  volume 
of  the  same  reduces  the  power  required  for  the  work  of  com- 
pression. No  doubt  all  this  is  true  in  a  degree,  but  it  is  at 
the  expense  of  a  reduced  piston  speed  and  therefore  a 
reduced  compressor  capacity,  because  oil  cannot  be  banged 
about  as  gas  may  be.  Besides  this,  the  plant  must  be  pro- 
vided with  a  complete  system  of  pumps,  separators  and  con- 
densers for  circulating  and  cooling  such  oil  and  restoring  it 
to  a  reservoir,  freed  from  ammonia,  to  be  used  over  again. 
All  of  these  special  features  have  to  be  taken  into  account 
when  comparing  the  first  cost  of  plant  and  working  expenses 
under  this  system  with  the  cost  of  equal  results  obtained 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  85 

from  others.  An  inspection  of  Fig-.  20,  and  comparison  of 
the  same  with  Figs.  17  and  24,  will  enable  the  much  greater 
complexity  of  the  oil  system  to  be  better  understood. 

NO    OIL    NECESSARY   IN   SOME    COMPRESSORS. 

Some  makers  of  high  class  modern  machinery  claim  that 
no  oil  at  all  is  required  for  the  pistons  of  their  compressors, 
and  only  use  it  as  a  seal  to  the  piston  rod.  In  single-acting 
vertical  compressors  a  little  oil  lying  in  the  bottom  of  the 
cylinder  around  the  neck  bush  must  necessarily  prevent  the 
passage  of  gas  through  the  packing,  and  it  is  only  subjected 
in  such  cases  to  the  back  or  expansion  pressure.  In  ordinary 
double-acting  compressors,  however,  the  piston  rod  and  its 
packing  are  subjected  to  the  full  forward  or  condensed  pres- 
sure. In  an  ordinary  double-acting  compressor  working 
horizontally,  as  in  the  Linde  system,  no  body  of  oil  can  lie 
round  the  neck  ring,  and  it  is  usual  in  such  cases  to  have  a 
very  long  stuffing-box,  with  a  lantern  bush  separating  two 
sets  of  packing,  as  shown  by  Fig.  44.  A  small  oil  pump, 
generally  driven  by  the  machine,  or  a  lubricator,  keeps  up  a 
supply  of  oil  to  this  intermediate  space,  and  under  such  an 
arrangement  any  ammonia  that  escapes  is  absorbed  by  the 
oil,  which  is  carried  to  a  special  vessel,  where  it  is  separated 
and  then  used  over  again.  A  certain  amount  of  oil  is  also 
carried  on  the  piston  rod  into  the  cylinder  to  lubricate  the 
piston  at  every  stroke,  which  necessarily  requires  it  more 
than  a  vertical  machine.  In  vertical  single-acting  compres- 
sors an  oil  vessel  is  often  attached  which  has  a  small  hand- 
pump  fitted  to  it  by  which  the  attendant  can  force  oil  into  the 
bottom  of  the  cylinder  to  seal  the  piston  rod  as  required. 
See  Figs.  45  and  46.  The  latter  is  a  special  design  by  the 
author,  and  has  a  glass  bottom  to  show  the  quantity  of  oil  in 
the  well. 

The  oil  which  escapes  through  the  packing  in  vertical 
compressors  naturally  runs  down  the  piston  rod,  and  to 
catch  the  same  and  keep  the  machine  clean  the  piston  rod 
often  runs  through  a  bowl  or  cup  on  the  crosshead,  as  seen 
in  Figs.  11  and  17. 

In  Fig.  11,  where  glycerine  is  used  as  a  lubricant,  which 
is  forced  in  between  the  double  leathers  of  the  piston  and 


86 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


FlG.   44.— SECTION    OF    LINDF 
STUFFING-BOX. 


FlG.  45.— OIL    PUMP    TO 
LANTERN    PACKING. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  87 

packing-,  the  cup  has  an  overflow  pipe  into  a  portable  receiver, 
so  arranged  as  to  be  emptied  by  hand.  Fig-.  47  shows  a 
device  specially  desig-ned  by  the  author  to  intercept  this  oil 
by  a  second  and  lighter  packing-  in  a  lower  stuffing-box,  and 
a  circular  trough  with  pipe  to  carry  it  to  a  receiver. 


FlG.    46. — LUBRICATING    PUMP    WITH    GLASS    BODY. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  any  oil  which  passes  the  upper  or 
main  packing  can  escape  through  openings  above  the  lower 
or  "swab"  packing  and  run  over  a  "drip"  into  an  annular 


88 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION, 


channel;  a  pipe  leads  the  oil  from  this  channel  to  a  reservoir, 
either  cast  in  the  frame  or  attached,  whence  it  can  run  down 
to  the  glass  reservoir  of  the  pump  seen  in  Fig-.  46,  to  be 
ag-ain  returned  to  the  compressor. 


FIG.  47. — OIL  INTB:RCEPTOR  FOR  PISTON  ROD — BY  THE  AUTHOR. 

In  machines  of  the  class  shown  by  Fig-.  11,  where  the 
pressure  often  runs  up  to  1,100  pounds  to  the  inch,  an 
extremely  simple  system  of  automatic  lubrication  of  the 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


89 


FlG.   48.— SECTION    OF    OIL    SEPARATOR    WITH   "BAFFLES. 


90 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION, 


FlG.    49. — SHCTION    OK    OIL    SEPARATOR    WITH    WIRE    SCREEN. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


91 


piston  rod  is  adopted.  The  vessel  shown  at  the  side  of  the 
machine  to  hold  the  lubricant  has  a  small  pipe  with  regu- 
lating- valve  to  adjust  the  flow  to  the  packing,  and  also  has  a 
pipe  which  puts  it  in  communication  with  the  full  forward 
pressure.  After  being  filled  with  glycerine  from  the  upper 
vessel  the  filling  valve  is  closed  and  the  pressure  valve 
opened;  it  is  then  only  necessary  to  adjust  the  small  valve, 
seen  on  the  pipe  to  the  stuffing-box,  to  the  flow  required. 
Owing  to  the  catches  provided  on  the  crosshead  this  can  be 
used  over  and  over  again. 


FlG.   50.  LIQUID   AMMONIA    RECEIVERS.  FlG.    51. 

As  an  escape  of  gas  takes  place  every  time  the  lubri- 
cating vessel  has  to  be  filled,  this  system  is  not  so  well 
adapted  for  ammonia  machines,  but  the  small  quantity  of  car- 
bonic acid  which  escapes  would  not  be  noticed. 

SEPARATION    OF    OIL    FROM    THE    AMMONIA. 

Seeing  that  oil  is  almost  invariably  used  in  refrigerating 
compressors,  it  becomes  necessary  to  interpose  certain  ves- 


92  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

sels  in  the  course  of  a  refrigerator  system  to  prevent  it 
being  carried  into  the  pipe  coils  of  the  condenser  and  refrig- 
erator, where  it  would  materially  reduce  the  efficiency  of  the 
pipe  surface  as  a  conductor  of  heat.  The  principal  oil  sepa- 
rator in  a  system  is  usually  fitted  on  the  main  pipe  between 


FlG.    52. — SECTION    AND    PLAN    OF    INTERCEPTOR. 

the  compressor  and  the  condenser,  and  some  experts  attach 
great  importance  to  this  vessel  being  very  large.  Fig.  48 
shows  such  a  vessel  as  made  for  fixing  to  a  wall,  and  pro- 
vided with  baffle  plates  to  facilitate  the  deposition  of  the  oil 
by  the  hot  vapor.  This  deposition  is  facilitated  if  the  vessel 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  93 

is  kept  comparatively  cool,  which  is  difficult  to  do  if  it  is  too 
small.  In  some  cases  the  outlet  and  inlet  pipes  to  a  separator 
are  simply  placed  vertically  through  the  top  cover  without 
anything-  to  baffle  or  arrest  the  oil  suspended  in  the  hot 
vapor,  and  in  others  wire  screens  are  introduced,  as  in  Fig-. 
49.  Opinions  appear  to  differ  greatly  as  to  what  is  the  best 
arrang-ement  and  proportion  of  parts  for  effectively  keeping- 
oil  out  of  the  condenser. 

LIQUID    AMMONIA    RECKIVER. 

Two  separate  forms  of  vessels  for  containing-  the  liquid 
ammonia  are  shown  by  Figs.  50  and  51.  This  vessel  is 
always  placed  below  the  condenser,  and  from  it  the  supply 
pipe  is  led  to  the  refrig-erator,  which  is  regulated  by  the 
expansion  cock  or  valve,  which  is  sometimes  called  the 
"flashing"  or  flash  valve,  the  name  no  doubt  suggested  by 
the  idea  of  liquid  flashing  into  vapor  as  its  pressure  is 
removed  when  it  passes  into  the  refrigerator. 

INTERCEPTOR    OR    TRAP. 

Another  vessel,  to  act  as  an  interceptor  or  trap,  is  often 
placed  on  the  expansion  or  low  pressure  side  of  the  refriger- 
ator, near  to  the  inlet  to  the  compressor,  in  order  to  inter- 
cept any  foreign  matter — such  as  scale  or  dirt — that  may 
accumulate  in  or  be  carried  from  the  pipes,  and  prevent 
the  same  from  entering  the  cylinder  of  the  compressor, 
where  it  might  injure  the  piston  or  valves.  All  these  vessels 
may  be  made  and  jointed  in  many  ways  so  long  as  they  are 
absolutely  gas  tight,  but  the  general  preference  is  for 
wrought  iron  or  steel  bodies  welded  up  at  one  or  both  ends. 


94  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

THE     STEAM    ENGINE     AND    THE    COMPRESSOR 
-THEIR  FUNCTIONS  CONTRASTED. 

In  a  steam  engine  high  efficiency  demands  the  produc- 
tion of  a  given  power  with  the  minimum  weight  of  steam 
supplied  from  the  boiler,  but  with  a  refrigerating  plant  high 
efficiency  means  passing  the  maximum  weight  of  gas  through 
the  cylinder  of  the  compressor  with  a  given  expenditure  of 
power.  Again,  a  steam  boiler  shows  its  efficiency  by  the 
evaporation  of  the  maximum  weight  of  water  per  pound  of 
fuel  burnt,  while  the  efficiency  of  a  refrigerator  boiler  or 
vaporizer  is  measured  by  the  evaporation  of  the  minimum 
weight  of  the  liquid  medium  per  unit  of  heat  abstracted. 

In  the  steam  engine  and  the  refrigerating  machine  the 
work  done  for  a  given  expenditure  of  power  is  largely  modi- 
fied, and  the  efficiencies  of  both  are  discounted  by  dispropor- 
tion of  parts,  clearance,  leakage  and  friction  ;  thus,  while  the 
theories  which  are  involved  in  the  compression  and  expan- 
sion of  gases  and  vapors  are  the  same  for  everybody,  yet 
the  practical  results  attained  with  compressors,  as  with 
steam  engines,  differ  widely,  in  accordance  with  the  design 
and  construction  of  the  machines  by  their  respective  makers. 

THE    MECHANICAL    OPERATION    OF    COMPRESSING    A    GAS. 

In  compressing  any  gas  the  design  and  construction  of 
the  compressor  cylinder  with  its  piston  and  valves  is  of  very 
first  importance,  as  they  are  the  primary  instruments  con- 
cerned. The  shafts,  cranks,  connecting  rods,  fly-wheels, 
steam  cylinders  or  other  portions  of  the  prime  movers  which 
supply  the  power  to  the  piston  of  such  a  cylinder,  occupy,  as 
accessories,  a  secondary  though  important  part.  Almost  any 
form  of  compressing  cylinder,  good,  bad  or  indifferent  in 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  95 

design  or  construction,  may  have  its  piston  driven  by  almost 
any  mechanical  arrangement  of  cranks,  rods  or  levers,  also 
either  ill  or  well  designed,  and  may  also  receive  its  motion 
from  steam,  water  or  any  other  power,  economical  or  waste- 
ful, without  at  all  affecting  its  quality  or  efficiency  as  a  com- 
pressor. 

It  is  therefore  desirable  in  instituting  a  comparison 
between  different  types  of  refrigerating  machinery  to 
classify  their  various  functions,  so  that  they  may  be  sep- 
arately and  properly  compared,  and  the  following  appears  to 
be  a  convenient  division  to  adopt  in  considering  the  questions 
involved: 

Firstly. —  The  construction  of  the  compression  pump 
itself,  with  its  pistons  and  valves,  and  its  efficiency  for  the 
work  it  has  to  do. 

Secondly.  —  The  connection  between  the  motor  piston  of 
the  engine  and  the  driven  piston  of  the  compressor  as  affect- 
ing the  simplicity  and  efficiency  of  the  transfer  of  power 
from  one  to  the  other,  and  the  first  cost  of  the  whole  machine. 

Thirdly.  —  The  provision  for  minimizing  wear  and  tear, 
reducing  cost  of  maintenance,  and  simplifying  access  to 
working  parts  for  inspection  and  repair. 

THE    QUALITIES    THAT  ARE  DESIRABLE,  OR   THE  CONDITIONS  THAT 
SHOULD  BE  FULFILLED,    IN  AN   IDEAL   COMPRESSION  MACHINE. 

Under  the  first  head  just  referred  to  may  be  placed  the 
following  characteristics,  which  are  directly  concerned  with 
the  work  done  on  the  gas: 

1.  On  the  in,  or  suction  stroke,  the  cylinder  should  fill 
with  gas  at  a  pressure  as  little  below  that  in  the  expansion 
coils  as  possible,  and  the  outlet  valve  should  be  tight. 

2.  The  piston  and  its  rod  should  work  with  the  maxi- 
mum of  tightness  in  order  to  prevent  leakage,  and  with  the 
minimum    of    friction,   which    (as    it    generates    heat    and 
requires  extra  power  to  overcome  it)  involves  a  two-fold  loss. 

3.  On  the  out-stroke  the  inlet  valve  should  not  permit 
any  leakage  back,  and  the  whole  contents  of  the  cylinder, 
less  the  minimum  of  clearance,  should  be  discharged  through 
the  outlet  valve  at  a  pressure  as  little  above  that  in  the  con- 
denser as  possible. 


96  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

Under  the  second  head:  Dealing- with  the  general  design 
and  construction  of  the  whole,  and  noting  that  the  very  mas- 
sive foundations  which  are  required  by  some  compressors 
and  their  steam  engines  must  be  taken  into  account  when 
comparing  the  cost  of  the  same  in  working  order— 

4.  The  machine — other  things  being  equal — should  be 
self-contained  on  one  sole  plate  so  as  to  be  easily  and  cheaply 
erected  on  the  minimum  of  necessary  foundations. 

Seeing  that  with  single  and  double-acting  cylinders  of 
equal  capacity  and  piston  speed,  single-acting  machines  must 
have  double  the  piston  area  of  double-acting  ones,  and  there- 
fore transmit  double  the  stress  to  the  connecting  rods  and 
cranks,  then— 

5.  The  work  of  the  compressor  with  its  crank,  rods 
and  crossheads  should    be   double-acting  instead   of   single- 
acting,  and  the  ratio  of  compression  should  be  as  small  as 
possible  during  both  strokes,  in  order  to  distribute  the  work 
over  as  large  a  portion  of  the  crank  pin's  path  as  possible. 

If  it  is  required  to  minimize  the  strain  on  the  crank 
pins,  shafts  and  connecting  rods,  and  keep  down  the  weight, 
cost,  friction  and  wear  of  those  parts,  and  high  mechanical 
efficiency  with  low  working  expenses  are  aimed  at,  then  — 

6.  In  order  to  minimize  the  friction  in  the  bearings  and 
prevent  the  loss  of  power  which  results  from  indirect  action 
the  connection  of  the  engine  piston  to  the  compressor  piston 
should  be  as  direct  as  possible,  and  the  crank  shaft  with  the 
crank  pins  and  connecting  rods  should  only  be  required  to 
take   up  and   transmit    the    difference    between   the    power 
exerted  by  the  steam  and  that  required  by  compressor  pis- 
tons, respectively,  at  any  given  position,  instead  of  having  to 
carry  the  work  and  friction  due  to  the  sum  of  those  powers. 

7.  The  pistons  and  valves  should  be  easily  accessible  for 
examination  and  renewal. 

Under  the  third  head,  and  connected  with  the  mainte- 
nance of  the  whole  of  machine  in  working  order  — 

8.  All  covers  or  bonnets  should  be  made  with  a  simple 
joint,  and  to  insure  perfect  absence  of  leakage,  such  things 
as  double  or  treble  connections,  with  bridges  under  one  joint 
face,  should  be  avoided. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  97 

Lastly,  all  wearing-  surfaces  should  be  adjustable  and 
easily  adjusted. 

THE     RESISTANCE     TO    A     COMPRESSOR     PISTON     IS     NOT    UNIFORM 
THROUGHOUT    THE    WHOLE   STROKE. 

The  curves  in  Fig-.  5  show  how  the  pressure  in  a  cylinder 
increases  as  air  or  gas  is  compressed  and  its  volume  reduced. 
Leaving-  for  the  present  -the  question  of  the  difference  be- 
tween adiabatic  and  isothermal  lines,  it  may  be  assumed  that 
in  practice,  the  actual  curve  of  compression  is  always  some- 
where between  the  two,  and  that  such  curve  can  be  ascer- 
tained at  any  time  when  a  compressor  is  fitted  with  a  suitable 
indicator.  This  instrument  takes  a  diagram  which  shows 
the  work  done  by  the  piston  of  a  compressor,  just  as  a  dia- 
gram from  a  steam  cylinder  shows  the  work  done  on  the 
piston  of  an  engine.  An  engine  piston  commences  its  stroke 
with  the  maximum  pressure  acting  upon  it,  which  continues 
until  the  steam  is  shut  off,  when  the  force  or  power  of  the 
same  diminishes  by  the  ratio  of  expansion  to  the  end  of  its 
travel;  but  the  piston  of  a  compressor  commences  its  stroke 
with  the  minimum  of  resistance,  or  without  having-  any 
resistance  to  meet  at  all  apart  from  friction,  because  the  g-as 
is  then,  or  should  be,  of  equal  pressure  on  both  sides  of  it. 

The  resistance  to  the  piston,  however,  commences  with 
its  movement,  and  the  pressure  of  the  g-as  in  front  rises  until 
the  condenser  pressure  is  reached,  and  then  it  continues 
uniform  as  it  passes  the  outlet  valve  to  the  end  of  the  stroke. 
It  is  not  all  expelled,  however,  in  practice,  because  a  certain 
amount,  more  or  less,  is  left  in  the  space  between  the  piston 
and  cylinder  head,  called  the  "clearance." 

Now  this  question  of  clearance  has  been  the  bete-noir  or 
bug-bear  of  g-enerations  of  compressor  builders,  and  its 
importance  is  sometimes  forcibly  broug-ht  home  to  machine 
men  when  they  see  a  cylinder  head  fly  clear  of  the  studs 
through  having-  too  little  clearance.  In  other  cases  a  very 
small  effective  result  is  obtained  through  the  machine  having- 
too  much  clearance. 

It  is  easy  to  understand  that  as  the  ratio  of  compres- 
sion becomes  greater,  so  much  the  shorter  is  the  latter  part 
of  the  stroke  during-  which  actual  delivery  of  gas  takes  place; 

(7) 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


99 


and,  therefore,   the  greater    the   ratio  of  compression    the 
greater  is  the  loss  with  a  given  amount  of  clearance. 

Fig.  53  shows  five  diagrams  of  a  compressor,  each  one 
with  the  piston  in  a  different  position.  In  the  first  one  the  pis- 
ton is  at  the  bottom  and  before  com  pression  commences,  and  the 
cylinder  is  supposed  to  be  full  at  normal  pressure;  the  others 
show  the  respective  positions  at  wh  ich  the  piston  arrives  before 


FlG.   54. — COMPOUND   TANDEM    ENGINE   AND    COMPRESSOR. 

Designed  by  the  author  in  1881. 

the  gas  is  compressed  into  one-half,  one  fourth,  one-sixth  or 
one-eighth  of  its  original  volume;  or,  if  it  is  an  air  compressor, 
then  to  two,  four,  six  or  eight  atmospheres  respectively.  (The 
effect  of  the  heat  of  compression  is  omitted  in  all  these  cases.) 
The  whole  of  the  parallelogram  between  the  piston 
and  cylinder  head  in  each  instance  represents  the  volume 


100 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


FlG.    55. — PLAN    OF    1881    MACHINE    BY    THE    AUTHOR. 


FlG.   56. — SECTION    OF    CASE    COMPRESSOR,    BUFFALO,    N.    Y. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


101 


at  the  increased  pressure  which  would  be  delivered  through 
the  outlet  valve  if  the  piston  was  to  strike  the  cylinder  head 
at  the  end  of  the  stroke.  The  space  between  the  head  and 
the  upper  dotted  line  represents  an  amount  of  clearance 
equal  in  all  cases.  The  space  between  the  cylinder  head 
and  the  lower  dotted  line  represents  the  volume  to  which 
the  enclosed  gas  would  re-expand  and  the  line  to  which  the 
piston  would  return  before  the  cylinder  could  commence  to 
refill  on  the  return  stroke.  If  this  clearance  is  as  much  as 
one-eighth  of  an  inch,  then  the  waste  or  lost  spaces  would 
be  one-quarter,  one-half,  three-quarters  and  one  inch 
respectively,  which  would  be  deducted  from  the  effective 


FlG.   57. — SECTION   OF   WESTINGHOUSE    ENCLOSED   COMPRESSOR. 

stroke  in  the  several  cases.  This  shows  that  there  would  be 
a  very  large  percentage  of  loss  with  high  ratios  of  compres- 
sion that  would  be  intensified  with  short-stroke  pistons. 

This  elementary  explanation  is  no  doubt  unnecessary  to 
many  readers,  but  it  paves  the  way  for  the  proper  considera- 
tion of  the  design  and  construction  of  compressors  as  actu- 
ally built,  and  of  their  methods  of  meeting  the  conditions 
required  for  high  efficiency. 

SOME  METHODS  ADOPTED  IN  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  REFRIGERAT- 
ING   COMPRESSORS    TO    MEET    THE    FOREGOING    CONDITIONS. 

In  Figs.  54  to  70  there  will  be  found  sections  of  a  number 
of  compressor  cylinders  including  well  known  and  widely 


102 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION, 


FlG.    58. — SECTION    OF  ANTARCTIC    SINGLK-ACTING    COMPRESSOR, 

Designed  by  the  author. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  103 

different  types.  An  examination  into  their  construction  will 
enable  us  to  see  how  they  secure  the  several  requirements 
which  have  been  considered  important  in  previous  chapters. 

FIRST. —  The  cv Under  should  Jill  with  gas  as  little  below  the 
pressure  in  the  expansion  coils  as  possible,  or,  in  other  -words, 
exhaust  the  maximum  -weight from  the  refrigerator. 

Fig's.  44  and  56  are  sections  of  two  double-acting"  com- 
pressors, the  former  working-  horizontally  and  the  other  ver- 
tically, but  in  both  cases  the  inlet  and  delivery  valves  are 
placed  with  their  axes  lying-  horizontal.  Such  valves  will  of 
course  not  close  by  gravity  alone.  Fig-.  57  represents  a  dif- 
ferent type  of  compressor  with  two  single-act  ing-  horizontal 
cylinders,  and  it  also  has  horizontal  valves.  As  such  valves 
have  no  tendency  to  close  by  themselves,  they  require  strong- 
spring-s  to  insure  their  action  being-  prompt  and  decisive, 
and  therefore  their  cylinders  never  can  fill  to  the  full  back 
pressure,  because  it  is  evident  that  during-  the  admission  of 
the  gas  there  must  always  be  a  sufficient  difference  between 
the  inside  and  outside  pressure  to  overpower  the  resistance 
of  the  springs  and  open  the  inlet  valves. 

Figs.  54  and  55  show  a  compressor  desig-ned  by  the 
author  some  years  ag-o  with  spherical  ends  to  the  cylinder 
and  piston,  so  as  to  provide  a  larg-er  area  for  the  inlet  and 
outlet  valves;  this  is  similar  to  the  arrang-ement  adopted  in 
the  well  known  Linde  machines,  Figs.  44  and  71,  and  seems 
to  be  the  best  possible  arrang-ement  for  ordinary  horizontal 
compressors  with  horizontal  valves.  Neither  of  these,  how- 
ever, can  provide  a  perfectly  free  inlet  for  gas. 

In  Fig-.  58,  a  desig-n  by  the  author  (Sydney),  Fig-.  59,  the 
Hercules  (American),  and  Fig-.  60,  the  Auldjo  (Australian), 
all  single-acting-  vertical  compressors,  it  will  be  seen  that 
special  devices  are  in  all  cases  provided  whereby  free  com- 
munication is  established  between  the  inlet  branch  from 
their  refrigerators  and  the  interior  of  the  cylinders  when 
their  pistons  are  right  down.  In  Fig*.  61 — Antarctic  compound 
— a  similar  arrangement  is  shown  in  the  primary  or  lowr 
pressure  cylinder. 

In  several  of  these  compressors  the  pistons  when  on  the 
bottom  center  uncover  the  ports  shown,  which  open  right 
through  their  cylinder  walls,  and  in  the  case  of  the  Auldjo 


104  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


FlG.   59. — SECTION    OF    HERCULES    COMPRESSOR. 


FlG.  60. — AULDJO    COMPRESSOR.      FlG.   61. — ANTARCTIC  COMPRESSOR. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


105 


machine  the  piston  passes  the  end  of  flutes  or  grooves  cut 
in  the  walls  of  the  cylinder.  All  of  these  cylinders  can 
therefore  fill  with  gas  without  any  restriction,  because  an 


DE   LA   VERGNE    COMPRESSORS. 
FlG.   62. — SINGLE-ACTING.  FlG.  63. — DOUBLE-ACTING. 

equilibrium  is  insured  between  the  two  sides  of  their  pis- 
tons, whatever  the  pressure  on  the  spring's  of  the  inlet  valves 
may  be.  This  idea,  borrowed  no  doubt  from  the  old  fash- 
ioned air  g-un  pumps,  is  supplemented  in  the  Auldjo  com- 


106 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


pressor  by  an  arrangement  for  opening-  the  inlet  valve  auto- 
matically; this  is  effected  by  having-  the  piston  itself  loose 
on  the  piston  rod,  and  the  valve  itself  fast  on  the  rod  in  such 
a  way  that  it  opens  on  the  down  and  closes  on  the  up  stroke. 
This  makes  a  double  (and  what  would  almost  appear  to  be  an 
unnecessary)  provision  for  securing-  a  full  cylinder  of  g"as. 


FlG.   64. — SECTION    OF    FKICK    CO.  \S    COMPRESSOR. 

In  the  cryog-en  machines — small  ammonia  dairy  refrigera- 
tors, made  in  Queensland — and  other  small  compressors 
there  are  no  inlet  valves  at  all,  and  the  inlet  is  entirely  pro- 
vided for  by  the  piston  passing-  the  end  of  grooves  machined 
in  the  bottom  part  of  the  cylinder,  as  in  the  Auldjo  com- 
pressor. In  the  Hercules  machine  there  is  a  belt  or  passag-e 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


107 


cast  around  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder  which  is  in  connection 
with  the  inlet  branch,  and  into  this  belt  holes  are  cored  (not 
bored)  through  the  walls  of  the  barrel.  Some  of  these  holes 


FIG.  65.— SECTION  OK  "CONSOLIDATED"  COMPRESSOR. 

are  above  and  some  are  below  the  piston  when  it  is  down,  and 
the  gas  has  thus  free  access  —  quite  apart  from  the  valves — 


108 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


before  the  return  stroke.  This  arrangement  involves  a 
rather  complicated  cylinder  casting-,  but  the  holes  compen- 
sate for  the  necessarily  restricted  size  of  the  inlet  valve  and 
secure  the  full  back  pressure  of  gas  above  the  piston  before 
compression  is  commenced. 

In  the   compressors,   Figs.  58  and  61,  similar  holes  for 
admitting  gas  are  provided,  but  instead  of  being  cored,  as  in 


FlG.    66. — SECTION    OF    YORK    CO.'S    COMPOUND    COMPRESSOR. 

the  previous  case,  they  are  drilled  from  the  outside.  This  is 
an  easy  process  with  these  machines  because  the  working 
cylinders  in  both  cases  are  made  as  plain  barrel  castings. 

In  the  widely  used  De  La  Vergne  compressors,  Figs.  62 
and  63,  one  of  which  is  single-acting  and  the  other   double- 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  109 

acting-,  the  weight  of  oil  would  appear  to  affect  the  free  admis- 
sion of  the  gas,  and  the  small  valves  in  the  double-acting 
piston  of  Fig.  63  probably  reduce  somewhat  the  effective 
pressure  in  the  cylinder.  As  these  machines  run  at  a  com- 
paratively low  piston  speed,  however,  the  actual  loss  may  not 
be  so  serious  as  would  otherwise  be  the  case. 

A  broad  contrast  to  the  last  example  is  seen  in  the  Frick 
or  "Eclipse  "compressor,Fig.  64,  which  has  the  inlet  valve  in 
the  piston  made  so  large  and  so  nicely  balanced  on  springs, 
that  when  it  has  completed  its  down  stroke  there  can  be 
scarcely  any  difference  between  the  pressure  in  the  cylinder 
above  and  below  the  piston,  and  thus  the  filling  of  its  cylinder 
is  insured. 

In  Fig.  65,  the  "Consolidated"  compressor,  and  Fig.  66, 
the  York  compound  compressor,  all  the  gas  has  to  be  drawn 
in  through  the  suction  valves,  which  have  to  share  the  space 
on  the  heads  of  their  cylinders  along  with  the  delivery 
valves,  and  are  thus  restricted  as  to  size.  Looking  at  all 
these  details  and  comparing  their  relative  effects,  it  may  be 
said  that  the  first  condition  is  more  perfectly  met  (although 
by  different  methods)  in  such  machines  as  the  Auldjo, 
Antarctic,  Hercules  and  Frick. 

SECONDLY. —  The  piston  and  rod  should  work  gas-tight  with 
the  minimum  of  friction. 

With  compressors,  such  as  are  shown  by  Figs.  62  and  63, 
the  oil  in  the  bottom  of  the  cylinders  must  prevent  any  gas 
from  escaping  through  the  piston  rod  packing,  although  in 
the  double-acting  one  it  is  subjected  to  the  full  forward  pres- 
sure of  the  gas.  The  oil  used  in  both  these  cases  is  intended 
to  be  carried  right  through  the  system  very  rapidly,  in  order 
to  take  up  some  of  the  heat  of  compression,  and  it  is  supplied 
at  every  stroke  by  means  of  a  special  pump.  There  is  no 
need  therefore  for  heavy  packing  and  great  friction  in  these 
machines.  It  is  claimed  for  the  Frick  machine,  Fig.  64,  that 
specially  good  workmanship  enables  oil  to  be  dispensed  with 
altogether  for  lubricating  the  piston,  except  so  far  as  it  is 
carried  in  by  the  rod,  and  it  is  used  only  in  a  lantern  bush, 
which  is  interposed  between  two  separate  packings  in  the 
stuffing-box,  where  it  is  forced  in  by  a  hand-pump.  There 
must,  however,  be  extra  friction  here,  due  to  the  exces- 


110  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

sive  length  of  the  two  packing's,  and  as  a  matter  of  fact 
this  lantern  bush  is  not  at  all  necessary  for  single-acting 
vertical  types  of  compressors  with  accurate  workmanship 
in  the  boring  and  turning  of  stuffing-box,  glands  and  piston 
rods,  while  with  the  double-acting  horizontal  compressors, 
such  as  the  Linde  and  those  shown  by  Figs.  44  and  54,  they 
are  almost  indispensable. 

A  pump  driven  by  the  engine  is  used  in  the  Linde  ma- 
chines to  eject  the  oil  continuously  between  the  two  packings 
to  prevent  the  escape  of  gas,  and  some  of  this  is  carried  into 
the  cylinder  at  every  stroke.  This  of  course  does  not  apply 
to  such  Linde  machines  as  are  constructed  with  a  lubricator 
on  the  stuffing-box  instead  of  a  pump.  It  will  be  noticed  that  in 
Fig.  58  the  oil  to  seal  the  rod  lies  well  belowthe  inlet  passage, 
and  there  is  thus  no  tendency  for  the  flow  of  gas  to  carry  it 
up  in  quantity  through  the  valve  in  the  piston.  In  the  com- 
pound compressor,  Fig.  61,  it  will  be  further  noticed  that 
there  are  no  piston  rods  proper  passing  into  the  cylinders  at 
all,  and  that  a  depth  of  several  inches  of  oil  can  lie  in  the 
bottom  of  the  casing  around  the  rods.  In  this  case  the 
tendency  of  the  oil  to  pass  through  the  system  is  minimized 
while  full  lubrication  and  sealing  of  the  rods  is  secured. 

In  order  that  the  piston  of  a  compressor  should  work 
g-as-tight,  and  yet  with  the  least  amount  of  friction  and  wear, 
it  is  imperative  that  the  metal  in  the  cylinder  should  be  of  a 
very  hard  and  uniform  texture.  In  order  to  better  secure 
these  qualities  it  is  desirable  that  the  cylinder  itself  should 
be  made  as  a  simple  barrel  or  as  plain  a  casting  as  possible. 
Any  complication  of  cores,  passages,  flanges  or  projections 
upon  a  cylinder  casting  has  a  tendency  to  cause  the  metal 
to  "  draw  "  or  become  spongy,  and  make  it  very  difficult  to 
produce  a  sound,  solid  casting  from  specially  hard  iron. 
What  is  still  worse  perhaps  is  that  an  irregular  casting  has  a 
tendency  to  alter  its  shape  with  every  change  of  temperature, 
and  as  a  compressor  cylinder  is  subject  to  more  changes  of 
temperature  than  a  steam  cylinder,  the  desirability  of  having 
a  casting  that  will  be  cylindrical  at  all  temperatures  and 
which  will  expand  and  contract  equally  all  over  is  very  evi- 
dent. 

This  characteristic  is  most  strongly  shown  in  Figs.  57, 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  m 

58  and  61,  where  the  working-  cylinders  are  either  separate 
bushes  or  quite  plain  barrels,  and  also  in  the  Frick  com- 
pressor, Fig-.  64,  where  the  working-  portion  of  the  cylinder 
is  quite  plain.  It  is  in  a  less  degree  in  the  Linde  cylinder, 
which  is  g-enerally  made  with  the  feet  cast  on.  The  most 
complicated  cylinders  to  cast,  owing-  to  cores  and  passag-es, 
are  probably  the  De  La  Verg-ne,  Fig-.  63,  and  the  Hercules, 
Fig-.  59,  where  the  designs  are  such  as  to  require  great 
skill  on  the  part  of  the  molder  to  obtain  sound  and  homo- 
geneous castings  which  will  wear  uniformly  all  over.  It  will 
be  noted  that  Fig-.  61  represents  a  double-acting-  compressor 
in  which  the  piston  rod  and  its  packing-  are  never  subjected 
to  the  forward  pressure  of  the  gas. 

It  must  be  within  the  knowledge  of  every  one  accus- 
tomed to  compressors  that  cylinders  often  want  reboring 
after  a  single  season's  work,  and  that  pistons  sometimes  leak 
after  being  started  only  a  few  weeks,  even  if  they  were  tight 
at  first.  The  power  of  the  engine  has  probably  been 
employed  to  wear  out  the  machine  through  undue  friction. 
The  remedy  for  this  is  to  have  cylinders  made  as  plain  cast- 
ings of  hard,  homogeneous  metal,  accurately  bored  and 
lapped,  and  pistons  that  will  work  satisfactorily  even  if  there 
are  no  rings  in  their  grooves.  Piston  rings  are  extremely 
useful  and  necessary  adjuncts,  but,  as  often  made,  with  a  very 
strong  spring  to  atone  for  a  bad  fitting  piston,  they  are  sim- 
ply devices  to  wear  out  the  cylinder  and  make  the  fit  worse. 
An  inspection  and  comparison  of  the  several  sections  will 
show  which  are  the  types  most  likely  to  secure  hard  and 
absolutely  sound  castings. 

THIRDLY. — The  ivhole  contents  of  the  cylinder,  less  the 
minimum  deduction  for  clearance,  should  be  discharged  at  the 
minimum  of  pressure. 

In  the  machines  shown  in  section  by  Figs.  62  and  63  the 
presence  of  oil  insures  the  full  expulsion  of  the  gas.  In 
those  shown  in  Figs. 58,  60  and  64,  with  movable  heads  to  their 
cylinders,  the  pistons  on  the  up-stroke  may  be  so  adjusted 
as  absolutely  to  touch  them,  and  thus  the  clearance  is  mini- 
mized in  these  cylinders.  If  smaller  pilot  valves  are  placed 
in  the  center  of  these  valvular  heads,  then  the  compressor 
cylinders  may  be  made  as  large  as  desired.  In  types,  such 


112 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION, 


as  those  shown  by  Fig's.  59  and  65,  however,  the  size  of  the 
outlet  valves  is  necessarily  restricted,  because  there  are  two 
valves — both  the  inlet  and  the  outlet — made  in  the  one  cover. 
These  machines  follow  very  closely  in  this  feature  the  design 


^^-^^^ 

FlG.   67. — HIGH    PRESSURE    CYLINDER   OF    COMPOUND    COMPRESSOR. 

of  some  of  the  ether  compressors  of  thirty-five  years  ag-o, 
and  owing-  to  such  restriction  in  the  delivery  orifice  require 
more  clearance  than  is  necessary  for  safety  with  larg-er  out- 
let valves.  The  contracted  size  of  the  valves  also  increases 
the  pressure  to  be  overcome  and  reduces  the  piston  speed. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  H3 

These  remarks  apply  in  a  modified  way  to  the  compressors 
shown  in  Figs.  54,  57  and  66. 

The  pros  and  cons  of  oil  injection  have  been  the  subject 
of  several  interesting-  wordy  wars  which  it  is  not  necessary 
to  touch  upon  here.  Whatever  he  may  once  have  thought  of 
it,  the  writer  does  not  now  believe  in  the  system.  Apart, 
however,  from  the  question  whether  the  oil  used  in  some  of 
them  absorbs  and  again  gives  out  gas  in  their  cylinders, 
the  De  La  Vergne,  Frick,  Auldjo,  Antarctic  and  others  of 
that  type  are  certainly  the  best  fitted  of  all  that  have  been 
so  far  illustrated  for  fulfilling  this  third  function  of  fully 
expelling  all  the  gas  at  the  end  of  the  stroke. 

The  amount  of  efficiency  lost  by  a  given  amount  of 
clearance  in  a  compressor  has  already  been  shown  to  be 
dependent  upon  the  ratio  of  compression  carried  out. 

Thus  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  clearance  with  a  two-fold 
compression  would  not  cause  so  large  a  percentage  of  loss  as 
one-thirty-second  of  an  inch  clearance  with  a  five-fold  com- 
pression in  the  same  cylinder.  It  follows  from  this  that 
when  compression  is  carried  out  in  stages,  as  in  the  "  Lock  " 
or  St.  Clair  system,  as  in  Fig.  66,  or  by  the  Antarctic  system, 
as  in  Fig.  61,  it  is  possible  to  get  a  very  full  discharge  with- 
out a  minimum  of  clearance  ;  for  let  us  suppose  in  a  com- 
pound machine  the  high  pressure  cylinder  to  be  only  one- 
third  of  the  area  that  a  single  compression  one  would  require 
to  be,  then  a  given  clearance  in  the  same  stroke  would  only 
waste  one-third  the  volume  otherwise  lost.  Fig.  67  is  the 
back  end  of  the  high  pressure  cylinder  of  a  compound  com- 
pressor made  for  the  author  in  1884.  It  will  be  noted  that, 
although  the  compressor  is  horizontal,  the  valves  are  vertical. 
Although  the  clearance  is  relatively  large  in  this  design,  it  is 
but  of  small  comparative  importance,  as  the  ratio  of  second 
compression  is  only  about  2:1. 

In  order  to  still  further  secure  the  maximum  efficiency 
in  preventing  leakage  past  the  pistons,  the  builders  of  some 
high  class  machines  not  only  bore  out  their  cylinders,  but 
they  lap  them  out  afterward  perfectly  true,  and  then  grind 
in  their  pistons.  This  is  due  to  an  advanced  idea  that  the 
ordinary  wear  and  leakage  of  cylinders  and  pistons  is  almost 
entirely  due  to  defective  material  and  workmanship,  and  that 


114 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION, 


the  ideal  piston  that  would  never  leak  is  the  one  that  fits  the 
cylinder  so  loosely  as  not  to  touch  it,  and  yet  so  closely  as 
not  to  permit  the  passage  of  gas.  This  is  of  course  a  ques- 
tion of  workmanship;  we  know  that  a  Whitworth  gauge  can 
be  made  so  true  that  it  cannot  be  passed  through  its  collar 
with  oil  on  it — as  there  is  no  room  for  oil — but  will  drop  easily 
through  it  when  dry  polished  with  a  silk  handkerchief.  In 
such  a  case  there  is  evidence  of  good  work.  In  the  compe- 
tition for  business  and  the  demand  for  cheap  machinery  of 


FlG.  68. — SINGLE-ACTING  COMPRESSOR. 
Patented  in  1880  by  the  author. 


FlG.  69 — COMPOUND  COMPRESSOR. 
Patented  in  1880  by  the  author. 


all  kinds  such  high  class  work  is  perhaps  not  common  in  the 
construction  of  refrigerating  compressors,  and  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  the  best  surfaces  of  ordinary  piston  and  cylinder 
walls  as  they  are  left  by  the  turning  tools  are  like  the  ridges 
and  furrows  of  a  plowed  field  on  a  small  scale,  and  they  are 
often  not  so  microscopic  as  to  want  more  than  an  ordinary 
eye  or  finger  to  detect  their  inequalities.  It  is  quite  certain 
that  a  piston  may  be  a  very  tight  fit  in  a  cylinder  one  day  and 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  115 

yet  work  easily  enough  to  rattle  about  shortly  afterward 
when  the  tops  of  the  hills  have  been  worn  off  the  two  metallic 
surfaces. 

The  author  is  an  advocate  for  a  true  cylinder  that  will 
be  equally  true  whether  it  is  hot  or  cold,  however  much  it 
may  expand,  and  a  piston  which  fits  it  and  has  such  a  thick- 
ness of  metal  as  to  heat  and  expand  equally  with  the  cylinder, 
and  he  does  not  like  strong"  spring-  piston  ring's  of  hard  steel, 
which  are  continually  destroying-  g-ood  cylinders.  It  is  better 


FlG.   70. — YORK    CO. 'S    COMPOUND    COMPRESSOR   AND   ENGINE. 

to  get  a  new  piston  than  to  spoil  your  cylinder  with  hard 
rings.  To  those  who  have  never  before  seen  an  ammonia 
cylinder  lapped  out  after  being  bored,  it  will  come  as  a  reve- 
lation when  they  first  see  it  done  and  realize  how  imperfect 
is  the  surface  of  the  ordinary  cylinder  that  is  turned  out  by 
the  best  lathe  or  boring  mill  alone. 

Figs.  68  and  69  represent  two  designs,  one  of  which  is 
for  a  single-acting  and  the  other  for  a  compound  ammonia 


116 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


FlG.  71. — PLAN    OF    LINDE    COMPRESSOR    AND   ENGINE. 


FlG.    72. — ELEVATION    DIAGRAM    OF    HERCULES    MACHINE 


FlG.    73. — PLAN    OF    HERCULES    MACHINE    AND    STEAM    ENGINE. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  H7 

compressor,  which  were  patented  by  the  author  as  far  back 
as  1880.  It  will  be  noted  that  they  both  work  with  valves  in 
their  pistons,  and  that  provision  is  made  in  both  of  them  to 
insure  that  the  piston  rod  packing-  is  only  subjected  to  the  back 
pressure — an  arrangement  which  has  since  come  into  very 
general  use. 

Before  leaving-  the  subject  of  compound  compressing 
cylinders  for  the  present,  it  will  be  well  to  note  that,  althoug-h 
it  is  not  important  in  small  machines  and  plants,  yet  with 
compound  compressors  of  larg-e  size  it  is  desirable  to  pass 
the  g-as  throug-h  a  condenser  between  the  two  stag-es  of  com- 
pression in  order  to  remove  some  of  the  heat,  reduce  the  vol- 
ume and  save  power.  This  is  done  with  the  York  compressor, 
shown  in  section  by  Fig-.  66,  where  the  connecting-  pipes  are 
seen  at  the  top,  and  by  Fig-.  70,  illustrating-  the  machine  com- 
plete. The  larg-e  compound  compressor  made  for  the  author 
in  1884 — of  which  Fig-.  67  is  part  section  of  the  h.  p.  cylin- 
der— had  a  tubular  condenser  interposed  between  the  two 
stag-es  of  compression,  and  it  gave  most  excellent  results,  the 
diagrams  showing-  nearly  isothermal  lines.  In  the  low  pres- 
sure cylinder  of  Fig-.  66  it  will  be  noted  that  the  valve  in  the 
piston  is  annular,  and  thus  it  requires  only  one-half  the  lift 
of  an  ordinary  mitre  valve  to  give  the  same  area  of  discharg-e. 
In  the  Auldjo  compressor,  Fig-.  60,  owing  to  the  valve  in  the 
piston  being  fast  on  the  piston  rod  itself,  and  the  piston  being 
loose  on  the  rod,  the  amount  of  its  opening  will  have  to  be 
deducted  from  the  nominal  stroke,  to  arrive  at  the  effective 
length,  because  the  actual  stroke  of  the  piston  will  be  so 
much  less  than  the  stroke  of  its  rod. 

It  would  seem  at  first  sight  a  self-evident  proposition 
that  a  compressor  and  its  steam  engine  should  be  combined 
as  one  machine.  But  as  a  matter  of  fact  such  well  known 
and  largely  used  types  of  refrigerating  plants  as  the  "Linde" 
and  "  Hercules  "  are  built  up  from  the  two  machines  made 
separately  (numbers  have  come  to  Australia  with  their 
engine  and  compressor  built  by  two  entirely  different 
makers) — see  Figs.  71  to  73 — and  in  such  case  they  of  course 
require  double  foundations  and  extra  careful  erection. 
There  must  be  some  reason  therefore  for  this  separation 
which  should  repay  our  investigation,  to  do  which  we  must 


118 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


go  back  a  little,  and  again  consider  the  work  to  be  done  by 
the  piston  of  a  compressor  in  its  relation  to  the  work  of  a 
steam  engine. 

THE    WORK    TO    BE    DONE    BY    A    COMPRESSOR    PISTON. 

Fig-.  74  represents  a  diagram  or  indicator  card  as  taken 
from  an  ammonia  compressor  by  an  eminent  firm  of  refrig- 
erating machine  builders,  who  claim  to  obtain  nearly  isother- 
mal compression  under  their  system  of  injecting  oil  at  every 
stroke  of  the  machine.  From  this  diagram  it  will  be  seen 
that  there  is  no  effective  work  performed  by  the  piston  at 
the  commencement  of  its  stroke  when  the  pressure  on  both 


FlG.   74. — INDICATOR    CARD    FROM    AMMONIA    COMPRESSOR. 

sides  is  the  same;  at  quarter  stroke  the  pressure  against  it  is 
equivalent  to  about  ten  pounds  per  square  inch,  at  half  stroke 
about  thirty  pounds,  at  three-quarters  stroke,  100  pounds, 
and  the  maximum  pressure,  about  180  pounds,  is  reached  at 
about  five-sixths  of  the  stroke,  when  the  delivery  valve  opens, 
and  the  pressure  thence  continues  uniform  during  expulsion 
to  the  end  of  the  piston's  journey. 

A  diagram  of  the  work  performed  against  the  piston  of 
an  expansive  steam  engine  is,  of  course,  just  the  reverse  of 
such  a  compressor  diagram,  because  in  the  engine  the  maxi- 
mum work  is  at  the  commencement  of  the  stroke,  whence  it 
continues  practically  uniform  until  the  steam  is  cut  off,  and 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


119 


then  it  diminishes  gradually  toward  the  end,  in  accordance 
with  the  grade  of  expansion  at  which  the  steam  is  worked. 

Air  compressors,  such  as  Fig.  75,  do  not  usually  work  to 
as  high  ratios  of  compression  as  ammonia  machines  do,  and 


FlG.   75. — STRAIGHT    LINE   ENGINE   AND    COMPRESSOR. 

most  builders  of  them  stick  fast  to  this  "straight-line" 
system.  Fig.  76  represents  two  indicator  diagrams  taken 
one  each  from  the  engine  and  compressor  cylinders  of  the 
same  straight-line  machine  and  superimposed.  By  this  it  is 


FlG.   76. — INDICATOR    CARDS    FROM    STEAM    AND   AIR    CYLINDERS. 

shown  clearly  how  unequal  is  the  relative  effort  and  resist- 
ance at  different  parts  of  the  stroke.  The  small  portion 
covered  by  crossed  lines  represents  the  whole  portion  of  the 
work  which  is  transferred  direct  from  the  piston  of  the 


120 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


engine  to  that  of  the  compressor,  although  the  engine 
appears  to  have  a  slide  valve  and  carries  the  ste.am  well 
past  half  stroke. 

These  discrepancies  are  greatly  intensified  if  we  take 
the  compressor  card,  Fig.  74,  and  superimpose  upon  it  the 
card  from  a  Corliss  engine,  cutting  off  at  from  one-fifth  to 
one-quarter  stroke,  as  in  Fig.  77. 

ABCDEAisa  diagram  from  a  Corliss  steam  cylin- 
der hatched  with  horizontal  lines,  and  F  G  H  D  F  is  the 
diagram  from  the  compressor  just  referred  to  hatched  with 
vertical  lines.  That  part  of  the  figure  which  is  covered  by 


FlG.    77. — INDICATOR    CARDS,    CORLISS   ENGINE   AND   COMPRESSOR. 

the  intersected  lines  represents  the  very  small  portion  of  the 
whole  work  that  would  be  communicated  directly  from  the 
piston  of  the  engine  to  the  piston  of  the  compressor  if  the 
two  were  coupled  up  in  a  straight  line;  that  proportion  of  the 
work  which  is  shown  by  plain  horizontal  lines  would  have  to 
be  delivered  into  the  fly-wheel  at  the  early  part  of  the  stroke, 
and  the  work  represented  by  the  area  covered  by  plain  verti- 
cal lines  would  have  to  be  given  up  again  by  the  fly-wheel  to 
the  compressor  piston  at  the  latter  end  of  the  stroke.  All 
these  points  have  to  be  considered  before  we  can  properly 
investigate  the  construction  of  the  whole  machine,  steam 
engine  and  ammonia  compressor  combined. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  131 

GENERAL  DESIGN  AND    CONSTRUCTION    OF  THE  WHOLE  MACHINE. 

FOURTHLY. — Other  things  being  equal,  the  machine  should 
be  all  self-contained,  be  easily  erected,  and  require  the  minimum 
of  foundations. 

FIFTHLY. — As  double-acting  compressors  require  only  one- 
half  of  the  stress  on  their  connecting  rods,  bearings  and  cranks, 
that  is  necessary  -with  single-acting  ones  of  equal  capacity  and 
stroke  to  do  the  same  amount  of  work,  then  all  compressors 
should  be  double-acting,  unless  there  are  insuperable  disadvan- 
tages connected  with  such  an  arrangement.  And,  as  the  smaller 
the  ratio  of  compression,  the  more  equable  is  the  work  of  the 
piston,  there  may  be  manifest  advantages  in  compressing  b\ 
stages  a  few  ratios  at  a  time,  if  not  accompanied  by  increased 
complication  and  cost  in  other  directions. 

The  writer,  from  a  life's  experience  of  machine  builders 
and  machinery  users,  is  inclined  to  the  belief  that  purchasers 
often  think  that  they  can  do  without  old-fashioned  advice, 
and  imagine  that  they  are  keen  buyers,  when  they  make  a 
saving-  by  paying- a  few  dollars  or  pounds  less  for  one  machine 
than  they  are  asked  for  another,  which  to  their  ideas  is  a 
similar  one.  Such  people  often  find  out  afterward  that  they 
made  a  mistake,  because  they  did  not  sufficiently  value  some 
old-timer's  experience,  or  take  into  consideration  what  the 
relative  cost  erected  complete  and  upon  their  foundations, 
ready  for  work,  of  the  different  machines  offered  to  them 
would  come  to,  and  understand  that  annual  up-keep  and  wear 
and  tear  are  important  factors. 

SIXTHLY. —  The  engine  piston  should  be  connected  directly 
to  the  piston  of  the  compressor,  and  the  cranks,  connecting  rods 
and  bearing's  of  the  machine  should  only  transmit  the  DIFFER- 
ENCE between  the  engine  force  and  the  compressor  resistance 
instead  of  the  SUM  of  the  work  represented  by  the  two. 

This  would  appear  as  a  self-evident  proposition  to  be 
universally  followed,  as  it  is  done  in  straig-ht-line  com- 
pressors, were  it  not  for  the  teaching-  of  preceding-  para- 
graphs, which  show  how  the  great  want  of  correspondence 
between  the  power  of  the  engine  and  the  resistance  of  the 
compressor,  during-  the  cycle  or  revolution  of  the  crank  shaft, 
necessitates  enormous  fly-wheels,  and  increases  the  frictional 
losses. 


122  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

SEVENTHLY. — The  pistons  and  valves  should  be  easily  acces- 
sible for  examination  and  removal. 

Horizontal  valves  are  generally  easily  accessible,  but 
they  want  looking-  to  so  much  oftener  than  vertical  ones,  that 
the  makers  of  the  machine  shown  by  Fig.  63  go  to  great 
expense  to  fit  vertical  valves  into  cages,  which  are  again 
fitted  into  horizontal  recesses  in  the  cylinder;  but  in  the  same 
machine  there  must  always  be  a  little  bit  of  a  picnic  if  one  of 
the  piston  valves  gets  stuck.  In  Fig.  61  the  difficulty  is  only 
apparent  and  not  real,  as  three  valves  can  be  withdrawn  by 
removing  the  top  cover,  and  the  low  pressure  inlet  valve  is 
accessible  from  the  bottom  door.  The  low  pressure  deliv- 
ery valve  is  made  so  as  to  withdraw  right  through  the  trunk 
and  high  pressure  piston. 

A  thoughtful  inspection  of  some  of  the  several  com- 
pressor cylinders  illustrated  reveals  interesting  features, 
which  suggest  a  number  of  questions — for  instance: — Why 
do  makers  of  some  compressors  put  their  outlet  pipes  on  to 
the  covers  or  heads  of  their  machines  in  such  a  way  that 
neither  the  piston  nor  the  valves  can  be  got  at  without  break- 
ing a  great  number  of  joints  and  taking  down  what  should  be 
permanent  connections? 

The  writer  was  once  shipmate  with  a  steam  crane  built 
by  makers  who  were  very  eminent  for  certain  classes  of 
machinery,  but  were  apparently  starting  a  new  line  of 
"grab"  cranes;  well,  this  crane  had  the  steam  pipes  screwed 
into  the  doors  or  bonnets  of  the  slide  valve  chests,  but,  owing 
to  the  absence  of  flanges,  it  was  necessary  to  take  off  eleven 
separate  pieces  of  pipe  to  get  to  those  slides.  If  compressors 
of  this  class  are  not  expected  to  call  forth  expressions,  at 
times,  which  are  more  forcible  than  poetic,  they  will  have  to 
be  placed  in  charge  of  very  good  men  in  more  senses 
than  one. 

EIGHTHLY. — Covers  or  bonnets  should  be  made  ivith  simple 
joints  and  no  bridges. 

This,  like  the  seventh  condition,  will  be  best  illustrated, 
perhaps,  by  instances  in  which  the  condition  is  not  fulfilled. 
Fig.  57  is  a  section  of  a  compressor  which  has  a  great  num- 
ber of  extremely  good  points  as  a  machine,  but  it  also  has 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  123 

triple  face  joints  under  the  heads  on  the  lines  A  B.  This 
arrangement  necessitates  most  accurate  workmanship  in  the 
fitting",  and  extreme  care  when  making*  the  joints  at  the  two 
bridges,  to  insure  that  they  do  not  blow  through.  A  leak  in 
such  a  case  may  be  going  on  for  a  long-time  before  it  is  found 
out.  The  author's  two  compressors,  Figs.  68  and  69,  are  sin- 
ners on  this  point,  but  as  he  is  now  twenty  years  older  than 
he  was  when  he  committed  the  offense,  he  has  lived  long 
enough  since  to  see  the  error  of  his  ways. 

Fig-s.  59  and  65  show  similar  joints  on  their  compressor 
heads;  these,  like  the  pipes  direct  on  to  the  heads,  are  not 
necessary  at  all,  unless  it  is  desired  that  the  man  who  has  to 
make  the  joint  in  a  hurry  and  be  responsible  for  it  afterward 
should  become  an  adept  in  profane  language.  A  joint  is  of 
course  a  relatively  simple  matter  to  make,  now  that  flang-es 
are  faced  by  hig-h-class  tools,  to  what  it  was  formerly.  The 
author  has  made  joints  of  curious  material  in  his  time,  such 
as,  for  instance,  tinfoil  and  blotting-  paper  on  ether  machines, 
well  kneaded  doug-h  from  wheat  flour  for  cold  kerosene,  fire- 
clay and  red  lead  for  hot  oil,  and  all  such  nostrums,  which 
were  the  best  thing's  known  for  their  respective  purposes  at 
one  time,  before  the  present  great  army  of  patent  packing- 
people  made  life  easier.  With  all  these  to  hand,  he  has 
found  nothing-  better  for  a  compressor  head  or  any  other 
ammonia  joints,  than  a  thin  lead  gasket  placed  in  a  recess 
where  it  cannot  g-et  away.  To  make  a  sure  success,  all  bon- 
nets and  flang-es  should  be  plain  circular,  and  turned  for  the 
ring-s.  If  people  will  make  simple  flat  surfaces  and  use 
jointing-  material  which  will  squeeze  out  and  g-et  in  the  way 
of  their  valves  or  pistons,  they  must  expect  trouble  some- 
times; but  such  old-time  rough-and-ready  methods  are  not 
good  practice  now.  The  jointing  material,  whether  metallic, 
fiber,  rubber  or  insertion,  should  be  inclosed  where  it  cannot 
spread.  For  examples  of  joints  see  the  covers  in  Figs.  58 
and  62,  which  show  two  separate  ways  of  keeping  the  jointing 
from  spreading. 

ENORMOUS    FLY-WHEELS. 

It  is  evident  from  the  foregoing  illustrations  that  builders 
of  compressors  have  good  reasons  for  the  employment  of 


124  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

the  extremely  heavy  fly-wheels  which  often  distinguish  this 
class  of  machinery.  Such  wheels  require  heavy  shafts  and 
journals,  and  therefore  greatly  increase  the  friction  in  the 
bearing's  and  the  power  necessary  to  drive  a  given  sized 
machine,  and  also  add  to  the  first  cost  and  maintenance  when 
at  work.  This  being-  well  understood,  there  has  in  conse- 
quence been  plenty  of  inventive  skill  displayed  in  devising 
compressing  machinery  with  all  sorts  of  arrangements  to 
enable  the  work  performed  by  the  steam  piston  to  coincide 
more  nearly  with  the  work  required  by  the  compressor's 
piston  at  every  part  of  the  shaft's  revolution. 

There  is  a  great  deal  of  popular  misconception  with 
regard  to  the  power  wasted  in  driving  fly-wheels,  it  being 
often  stated  that  such  power  is  only  required  at  first  start- 
ing them  into  motion.  The  actual  horse  power  continu- 
ously expended  is  represented  by  the  formula: 


„  . 

Horsepower:     ff= 


Wherey  represents  the  co-efficient  of  friction  from  .03  to  .25 
in  wrought  iron  upon  gun  metal  lubricated,  it  cannot  safely 
be  taken  at  less  than  .05  in  actual  continuous  work;  TFthe 
weight  of  fly-wheel,  S  the  speed  or  revolutions  per  minute, 
and  .26d  the  circumference  of  the  journal  in  feet  when  d= 
the  diameter  in  inches. 

Take  for  example  a  5-ton  fly-wheel  making  90  revolu- 
tions per  minute  with  9-inch  journals,  then  9"X.26  =  2.34  ft. 
cir.  of  journal  X  90  revs.  =  210.6  feet  per  minute.  Five  long 
tons  =  11,200  Ibs.,  which  multiplied  by  .05,  =560. 

560  X  210 
Then    ^000"  :  =  3-3  horse  power. 

With  fuel  evaporating  8  Ibs.  of  water  per  minute  and  an 
engine  using  30  Ibs.  of  steam  per  horse  power  per  hour— 

i  nc  x  24 
3.5X30=105,  and  =315  Ibs.  of   coal  wasted  every 

o 

twenty-four  hours  simply  to  drive  the  wheel. 

RIGHT-ANGLED    AKKANGEMKNT    OI^    ENGINE    AND    COMPRESSOR. 

In  order  that  the  continuously  varying  power  of  the 
engine  during  the  course  of  a  stroke  or  revolution,  may  be 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION, 


125 


applied  in  such  a  way  as  to  correspond  letter  with  the  work 
to  be  done,  and  be  more  effective  at  the  time  when  the  com- 
pressor piston  offers  the  greatest  resistance  to  it,  great 
numbers  of  refrig-erating-  machines  are  now  built  in  such  a 
way  that  the  effective  axis  of  the  steam  cylinder  with  reg-ard 
to  the  crank  shaft  is  at  rig-ht  angles  to  the  axis  and  stroke  of 


FlG.  78. — SECTION    OF    FRICK    CO. 'S   ENGINE   AND    COMPRESSOR. 

the  compressor,  and  this  is  generally  carried  put  under  one 
or  the  other  of  the  following-  arrangements  : 

Under  the  first  one,  the  two  connecting-  rods  from  the 
crossheads  of  the  eng-ine  and  compressor  respectively,  are 
connected  to  the  same  crank  pin,  and  thus  transmit  the  power 
without  any  torsion  on  the  shaft,  as  seen  in  Fig's.  78  (Eclipse) 
and  79  (De  La  Verg-ne),  which  represent  American  machines 
of  the  very  hig-hest  class,  having-  horizontal  eng-ines  and  verti- 
cal compression  cylinders.  Examples  of  the  other  arrang-e- 
ment  are  shown  by  the  Australian  compressors,  Fig-s.  4  .and 


126 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


54,  where  the  steam  engine  is  vertical  and  the  compressor 
cylinder  horizontal. 

Under  the  second  plan  the  compressor  is  set  parallel  to 
its  engine,  which  is  often  on  an  entirely  independent  founda- 
tion, especially  when  the  two  machines  are  both  horizontal. 
Two  separate  cranks  are  provided,  one  for  the  engine  and 
the  other  for  the  compressor,  which  are  keyed  on  to  the 
opposite  ends  of  the  fly-wheel  shaft  at  an  angle  of  90°  or 
thereabouts.  See  Fig-.  71  for  a  typical  example  which  should 


FlG.   79. — SECTION    OF    DE    LA  VERGNE    ENGINE    AND    COMPRESSOR. 

be  carefully  compared  with  Fig-.  54,  because  the  compressor 
cylinders  are  practically  the  same  in  the  two  cases.  The 
operation  of  the  engine  on  the  compressor  is  nearly  the  same 
in  both  these  machines;  but  necessarily  there  is  in  Fig-.  71, 
besides  the  torsion  on  the  shaft,  more  main  bearing-  friction, 
additional  first  cost,  and  double  foundations  to  be  provided. 
An  examination  of  the  double-acting-  compressors,  Figs. 
54  and  71,  will  show  that  in  both  cases  two  singie-acting"  hori- 
zontal cylinders  could  be  substituted  for  the  double-acting- 
one,  without  in  any  way  affecting-  the  relation  of  the  steam 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


127 


engine  piston  to  the  motion  and  effective  power  of  the  com- 
pressor pistons. 

HORIZONTAL   ENGINE    AND    TWO    VERTICAL    COMPRESSORS. 

Two  vertical  single-acting1  compressors  operated  by  a 
horizontal  engine  require  at  least  two  cranks,  generally  set 
opposite  to  one  another  or  at  an  angle  of  180C,  in  which  case 
one  compressor  only  is  driven  by  torsion  of  the  shaft. 
Three  cranks,  however,  are  often  adopted,  and  entail  a  great 
deal  of  additional  complication  and  expense,  which  of  course 
the  designers  of  the  machines  consider  justified  by  compen- 


FlG.  80 — HORIZONTAL  ENGINE  AND  VERTICAL  COMPRESSORS — ELEVATION. 

sating  advantages,  and  at  least  five  different  arrangements  of 
this  type  are  in  common  use,  all  of  which  have  their  respect- 
ive advocates. 

Fig.  80  represents  the  end  elevation  of  such  a  machine, 
five  different  plans  of  which  follow,  some  having  inside  and 
others  outside  fly-wheels.  The  advantage  of  a  large  fly- 
wheel is  obvious,  because  if  5,000  pounds  weight  of  wheel  can 
be  made  as  effective  as  one  of  10,000  pounds  in  a  smaller 
compass,  it  will  only  require,  as  has  already  been  shown,  one- 
half  the  loss  of  power  to  keep  it  in  motion. 


128 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


To  have  large  inside  fly-wheels  means  very  large  and 
heavy  sole  plates,  and  therefore  some  machine  builders  over- 
hang- their  wheels  at  the  opposite  end  to  the  engine,  as  in 
Fig.  81,  occasionally  extending  the  shaft  for  a  fourth  and 
outer  bearing. 


FlC.    81. — HORIZONTAL    ENGINE,   VERTICAL    COMPRESSOR — PLAN. 

In  Fig.  81  is  seen  the  plan  adopted  by  a  very  eminent 
firm  of  builders.  One  crank  pin,  it  will  be  noticed,  is  of 
double  length,  to  take  the  big  ends  of  the  two  connecting 
rods.  The  work  in  such  machines  is  necessarily  very 
severe  on  the  middle  bearing,  and,  although  the  shafts  are 


I  ----  J 


FlG.   82.  —  PLAN    OF    FlG.    80    WITH    INSIDE    FLY-WHEEL. 

made  enormously  strong  as  compared  with  steam  engine 
practice,  they  occasionally  fail  as  a  result  of  the  special 
strains  to  which  compressors  are  liable. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


129 


Fig-.  82  shows  the  arrangement  adopted  by  another  firm 
of  world-wide  reputation,  who  put  a  large  fly-wheel  between 
the  two  compressors  and  carry  the  separate  portions  of  the 
sole  plate  on  massive  girders  below  the  floor  line.  The  solid 
crank,  as  before,  carries  two  connecting-  rods,  but  the  outer 
compressor  has  a  disc  crank  overhung-.  If  the  girders, 
shown  in  dotted  lines,  and  the  bottom  of  the  separate  sole 
plates  are  accurately  planed,  as  is  no  doubt  the  case,  this 
arrang-ement  is  a  much  better  one  from  a  practical 
mechanic's  point  of  view  than  the  one  preceding  it. 

Fig-.  83  shows  one  single  solid  crank  for  the  engine  and 
two  disc  cranks  for  the  two  compressors  and  needs  a  very 
large  sole  plate,  as  the  fly-wheels  are  inside.  With  large 
discs  the  weight  of  each  compressor  piston  and  its  connect- 


FlG.  83. — MACHINE  WITH   TWO   INSIDE   FLY-WHEELS. 

ing  rod  can  be  balanced  separately,  instead  of  in  the  fly-wheel, 
and  much  steadier  and  smoother  running  can  be  assured. 
The  fault  of  this  arrangement  is  that  it  requires  four  bear- 
ings to  be  kept  accurately  in  line;  as  the  bushes  wear,  the 
unequal  wear  which  is  nearly  certain  to  take  place,  tends 
to  throw  strains  upon  the  shaft  and  break  the  crank. 

For  Fig.  84,  the  only  thing  to  be  said  in  its  favor  is  that 
large  fly-wheels  can  be  used  with  a  small  sole  plate;  the 
downward  wear  of  the  two  outer  bearings,  however,  offers 
a  premium  for  breakage  of  the  expensive  triple  crank  shaft. 

(9) 


130 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


In  marine  engine  practice  it  is  now  customary  to  "build 
up"  these  crank  shafts,  and  they  are  frequently  made  in 
short  sections  with  flanges.  With  triple  or  quadruple  expan- 
sion a  long-  series  of  solid  or  double  cranks  and  a  line  of 


FlG.   84. — MACHINE   WITH  THRICE    CRANKS    AND    OUTSIDE    FLY-WHKKLS. 

bearing's  are  absolutely  necessary;  but  there  is  no  necessity 
whatever  for  such  complication  with  a  refrigerating  com- 
pressor. Every  experienced  engineer  knows  the  advantage 
of  having  only  two  bearings  to  a  shaft,  and  of  that  shaft  being 


FlG.  85. — MACHINE  WITH  TWO  BEARINGS  AND  CRANKS,   ONE  FLY-WHEEL. 

a  plain  one  without  solid  cranks  that  require  the  crank  pins 
to  be  the  same  size  as  the  shaft  itself. 

Fig.  85  shows  an  arrangement  of  this  kind  with  two 
engines,  preferably  cross-over  compound  cylinders;  there  is 
only  one  fly-wheel  between  two  bearings,  and  those  bearings 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


131 


should  be  sufficiently  wide  apart  to  prevent  the  pressure  and 
friction  upon  them  being"  materially  increased  as  the  effect 
of  the  leverage  due  to  the  overhang-  of  the  crank  pin.  The 
adoption  of  a  larger  diameter  of  the  crank  pins  for  the  com- 
pressors is  optional,  but  it  is  mechanically  correct.  With 
such  an  arrangement  the  steam  engine  can  be  made  of  longer 
stroke  than  the  compressor  by  having-  the  two  pins  eccentric 
to  one  another.  If  space  can  be  afforded  inthe  machine  house 
to  g-ive  a  decently  wide  spread,  there  can  be  no  question  as 
to  the  simplicity  and  efficiencv  of  this  plan  of  machine. 


LJ 


rr 


FlG.   86. — VERTICAL    ENGINE   AND   TWO   VERTICAL    COMPRESSORS. 

With  vertical  or  "inverted"  engines  and  two  vertical 
compressors,  the  adoption  of  three  cranks  is  imperatively 
necessary  to  secure  the  right-angled  action  of  the  engine. 

Fig-.  86  illustrates  one  of  the  most  common  designs,  with 
two  disc  cranks  for  the  compressors,  four  bearing-s,  and 
two  fly-wheels;  it  would  make  a  better  job  of  it,  perhaps,  if 
the  outer  bearing-s  were  larger,  the  shaft  strengthened,  and 
the  two  inner  bearing-s  dispensed  with.  This  type  of 
machine  may  be  modified  by  making-  three  solid  forg-ed 
cranks  with  outside  fly-wheels  put  on  in  halves,  or  still 
further  varied  by  putting-  overhung-  fly-wheels,  making  the 
plan  almost  a  counterpart  of  Fig.  84,  and  shown  by  Fig.  89. 


132 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


This  vertical  pattern  seems  to  have  been  first  favored 
by  the  great  American  father  of  ice  making-  machinery,  the 
late  David  Boyle,  one  of  whose  machines  is  shown  by  Fig-.  87. 

As  a  contrast  to  this  work  of  only  twenty  years  ag-o,  and 
to  illustrate  by  comparison  the  great  advance  made  since 


.   87.  —  AMMONIA    COMPRESSOR  —  ORIGINAL    BOYLE    PATTERN. 


that  time,  the  mag-nificent  machine  built  by  his  successors  is 
shown  by  Fig-.  88. 

Fig-.  89  shows  the  arrang-ement  with  a  vertical  engine, 
modified  by  overhang-ing-  the  fly-wheels. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


133 


134 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION, 


In  all  the  accompanying*  illustrations  where  the  effective 
axis  of  the  engine  is  at  rig-ht  angles  with  that  of  the  compres- 
sor, the  eng-ine  is  on  its  dead  centers  (and  therefore  exert- 
ing- no  power  directly  from  its  piston)  at  the  time  when  the 
compressor  piston  is  just  below  half  stroke;  so  that  the 
motive  power  in  such  positions  must  come  from  the  fly- 
wheel. A  little  examination  will  also  show,  that  as  the  crank 
comes  toward  either  the  top  or  bottom  centers,  and,  with  the 
compressor  connecting-rod,  approaches  the  vertical  position, 
then,  the  centers  of  the  crosshead  pin,  the  crank  pin,  and 
the  shaft  are  coming-  into  line  tog-ether,  which  constitutes  a 
togg-le  joint  of  the  crank  and  connecting-  rod.  The  action  of 


FlG.  89. — VERTICAL    MACHINE  —  OVERHUNG   FLY-WHEELS. 

the  engine  on  the  central  pin  of  this  tog-g-le  is  to  create  a 
gradually  increasing-  force,  which  approaches  the  theoreti- 
cally infinite  at  the  two  compressor  centers,  just  when  the 
compressor  pistons  offer  the  greatest  resistance. 

DIAGRAMS    ILLUSTRATING    HIGHT-ANGLIOD    CONNECTION. 

The  actual  effect  which  is  produced  on  the  distribution 
of  power  from  the  piston  of  the  eng-ine  to  that  of  the  com- 
pressor, whether  arranged  in  one  or  other  of  the  ways  shown 
by  the  several  machines  illustrated,  is  graphically  and  effect- 
ively shown  by  Fig-.  90,  a  diagram  from  a  Corliss  eng-ine  and 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


135 


ammonia    compressor,  which   is   merely  a  transposition   of 
what  is  seen  on  Fig-.  77. 

In  this  diagram,  Fig-.  90,  the  length  of  the  base  line  rep- 
resents the  travel  of  the  piston,  or  the  stroke  of  the  machine; 
and  the  vertical  heights  from  any  points  on  the  base  to  the 
curved  lines,  the  relative  pressure  on  the  pistons  in  such 
positions.  The  compressor  diagram — hatched  with  vertical 
lines —  is  identical  with  that  on  Fig-.  77,  but  the  transposition 
of  the  varying  pressures  shown  by  the  steam  engine  card  is 


FlG.    90. — DIAGRAMS,   CORLISS   ENGINE    AND    COMPRESSOR   (TRANSPOSED). 

so  radical,  that  it  would  not  be  recognized  without  explana- 
tion. The  portion  batched  by  horizontal  lines,  however, 
represents  the  equivalent  in  energy  of  the  engine  power,  as 
on  Fig-.  77,  but  so  transferred  as  to  correspond  with  the 
motion  of  the  compressor  crosshead  instead  of  its  own. 

The  horizontal  base  line  from  left  to  right  represents  the 
stroke  of  the  compressor  piston  from  the  bottom  to  the  top 
center.  The  power  of  the  engine  on  the  compressor  connect- 
ing- rod  and  piston  is  at  its  maximum  at  the  commencement 
of  the  stroke,  as  the  engine  is  then  a  little  past  half  stroke; 


136 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


but  this  power  comes  down  to  nothing-  at  about  half  com- 
pressor stroke,  when  the  engine  arrives  on  either  of  its  own 
centers.  It  will  be  noted  that  this  center  point  of  the  eng-ine 
is  not  exactly  at  midstroke  of  the  compressor,  but  is  nearer 
to  the  left  side ;  this  is  owing  to  the  angle  of  the  compressor's 
connecting  rod  shortening  the  height  of  its  crosshead.  At 
the  right  hand  side  of  the  figure  the  engine  is  again  out  a 
little  past  half  stroke,  due,  as  before,  to  the  angle  of  its  own 
connecting-  rod,  and  the  compressor  is  then  on  its  top  center. 
In  this  figure,  it  will  be  seen,  nearly  all  the  compressor's  dia- 
gram is  overlapped,  and  covered  by  the  crossed  lines,  and 


FIG.   91. — ENGINE   AND   SINGLE-ACTING    COMPRESSOR. 

the  beautiful  effect  of  the  right-ang-led  connection  is  made 
very  clear.  Sufficient  bare  horizontally  hatched  space  is  left 
to  represent  the  surplus  power  which  is  required  to  cover 
the  frictional  losses,  and  it  is  evident  that,  other  things  being 
equal,  any  arrangement  in  which  the  work  to  be  given  and 
taken  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  90,  will  only  require  a  small  frac- 
tion of  the  fly-wheel  power  storag-e  which  would  be  necessary 
in  a  case  such  as  is  indicated  in  Fig.  77.  The  wide  adoption 
of  a  machine  in  which  a  horizontal  Corliss  engine  is  combined 
with  vertical  compressors  is  thus  seen  to  be  fully  warranted 
by  theory  as  well  as  by  the  result  of  practical  work. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


137 


In  the  case  of  small  machines  made  for  dairies,  and  for 
butchers'  use,  as  in  Fig-.  91,  there  is  often  only  one  com- 
pressor, and  that  single-acting-,  combined  with  a  slide  valve 
engine.  In  such  case  one-half  of  the  work  of  the  engine  at 
least  must  be  put  into  the  fly-wheel. 


FlG.   92. — DIAGRAM    FROM    MACHINE    LIKE   FlG.  91. 

Fig.  92  shows  the  application  of  the  power  of  the  eng-ine 
to  such  a  compressor;  the  power  as  before  being-  hatched 
with  horizontal  lines,  shows  the  engine  cutting-  off  at  three- 
quarters  stroke.  The  compressor  work  is  covered  by  ver- 
tical lines. 


FlG.  93. — DIAGRAMS  FROM  FlG.   91,  WITH    RIGHT-ANGLED    CRANKS. 

Fig-.  93  gives  the  diagrams  of  the  same  machine's  work, 
but  with  the  cranks  at  right  angles. 

HOW  TO    PLOT    DIAGRAMS    OF    A    COMPRESSOR'S   WORK. 

As  it  may  not  be  clear  to  every  reader  how  the  preced- 
ing diagrams  have  been  constructed,  and  as  the  graphic 
method  adopted  may  be  used  for  other  purposes,  such  as  for 


138 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


ascertaining  the  loss  by  friction  in  a  complex  machine,  and 
as  such  a  method  of  investigation  will  settle  scientifically 
many  questions,  the  answers  to  which  are  often  only  g^uessed 
at,  the  larg-e  diagram,  Fig.  94,  is  introduced  to  illustrate  the 
work  of  a  Corliss  eng-ine  and  pair  of  compressors. 


DIAGRAM 

SHOWING  THE  RESULTANT  FORCE  AVAILABLE 
BEHIND  THE  PISTON   or  A   VERTICAL   COMPRESSOR 

WHEN     CON 

HORIZONTAL    CORLISS     ENGINE 


FlG.    94.— DIAGRAM    ILLUSTRATING    WORK    OF    CORLISS    KNGINK    AND 
TWO    COMPRESSORS. 

Ill  this  diagram  sixteen  positions  are  taken  in  the  path  of 
the  crank  pin,  besides  the  engine  centers,  and  the  top  center 
of  the  compressor.  To  save  space  the  connecting"  rods  are 
centered  direct  from  the  crank  pin  on  to  the  piston  centers. 
The  length  A  B  represents  the  stroke  of  the  engine  and  C 
D  the  stroke  of  the  compressor.  To  prevent  confusion 
which  would  result  from  showing1  the  maze  of  lines  necessary 
to  work  out  the  whole  of  the  nineteen  positions,  only  those 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION,  139 

are  given  which  have  reference  to  one  position  (No.  3), 
although  the  same  work  has  been  done  for  the  whole  nine- 
teen positions  of  the  pistons. 

The  arrow  on  the  crank  pin  circle  shows  that  the  engine 
runs  "overhand."  The  compression  diagram  on  the  left 
side  which  is  hatched  belongs  to  the  compressor  working  off 
the  engine  crank,  and  which  compresses  while  such  crank 
is  passing  from  position  13  to  the  top  center.  The  com- 
pressor diagram,  in  double  line,  on  the  right  side,  belongs  to 
the  other  and  opposite  crank,  and  the  compression  there 
takes  place  while  the  engine  crank  pin  is  passing  from  the 
upper  to  the  lower  center.  When  the  compressors  are  on 
their  two  centers — one  at  the  top  and  the  other  at  the  bottom 
— the  engine  crosshead,  owing  to  the  angle  of  its  connecting 
rod,  is  not  at  half  stroke,  but  is  considerably  nearer  to  the 
crank  shaft.  This  angle  of  the  connecting  rod  causes  a  good 
deal  of  inequality,  in  the  work  directly  available  for  the  two 
compressors,  and  makes  work  for  the  fly-wheel  if  the  cut-off 
is  the  same  at  the  two  ends  of  the  engine.  The  compressor 
on  the  engine  crank  is  clearly  seen  to  get  more  engine  power 
than  its  fellow,  because  the  portions  of  the  two  engine  cards 
which  are  covered  with  horizontal  lines  are  much  larger  in 
area  than  the  plain  portions  belonging  to  the  other  com- 
pressor. The  space  between  the  lines  marked  "engine  half 
stroke,"  and  "compressor  centers,"  is  added  to  one  and 
taken  from  the  other,  by  the  inclination  of  the  connecting 
rod. 

The  position  taken  for  full  illustration  is  No.  3,  where 
the  crank  is  at  about  an  angle  of  45C,  and  the  engine  piston  is 
under  full  pressure,  having  completed  one-sixth  of  its  out- 
stroke.  The  height  of  the  upper  diagram  at  3.3  in  the  out- 
stroke  or  back-end  card,  represents  the  pressure  on  the  pis- 
ton, the  area  of  which  is  assumed  to  be  unity.  This  measure- 
ment representing  the  force  acting  against  the  piston  is  trans- 
ferred to  a  b,  on  the  line  of  the  piston  rod,  and  by  the  con- 
struction of  the  parallelogram  a  b  c  g  gives  b  c  as  the 
thrust  on  the  engine  connecting  rod,  and  b  g  as  the  pres- 
sure on  the  guides.  (By  taking  the  pressure  on  the  guides 
in  all  positions  an  estimate  can  be  made  of  the  frictional 
losses  due  to  the  varying  angle  of  the  connecting  rods. )  The 


140  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION, 

length  b  c  at  the  crosshead  end  of  the  connecting-  rod  is 
transferred  to  b  c  at  the  crank  end,  c  being  the  center  of 
the  crank  pin.  By  the  construction  of  the  parallelogram 
b  c  e  d  with  d  e  in  line  with  the  crank  centers,  then  the 
length  of  c  e  represents  the  amount  of  force  or  thrust  on 
the  compressor  connecting  rod,  and  c  d  the  direct  down- 
ward angular  thrust  on  the  main  bearing  ;  the  latter  being 
the  resultant  of  the  separate  stresses  on  the  two  parts  of 
the  crank  pin.  By  drawing  e  f  vertically  from  the  point  e, 
with  c  f  horizontal,  the  length  of  the  former  line,  e  f  gives 
the  amount  of  the  direct  vertical  force  of  the  engine  available 
for  the  work  of  the  compressor,  and  c  f  represents  the 
pressure  of  the  crosshead  against  the  compressor  guides. 
At  the  position  3  on  the  compressor  diagram,  where  the  top 
end  of  the  connecting  rod  is  centered,  a  line  equal  in  length  to 
f  e  is  set  up  as  representative  of  the  pressure  or  force 
available  to  move  the  compressor  piston  in  that  position. 
By  drawing  a  similar  series  of  parallelograms  to  every  one  of 
the  other  positions  the  corresponding  lengths  of  line  have 
been  found  which  enable  the  complete  diagrams  to  be  con- 
structed. No  allowance  or  deduction  has  been  made  in  any 
of  these  cases  for  friction;  but  it  is  evident  that  if  the  co-effi- 
cient of  friction  is  known,  then  the  actual  loss,  and  the 
mechanical  efficiency  of  the  whole  machine,  can  easily  be 
ascertained  by  the  same  method  of  investigation. 

DIAGONAL   CONNECTION. 

It  has  been  shown  that  a  steam  engine  with  a  very  early 
cut-off  is  specially  applicable  for  a  right-angled  connection 
with  a  compressor;  but  a  comparison  of  Fig.  90  with  Fig.  93 
makes  it  clear  that  a  later  cut-off  is  not  so  well  fitted  for  the 
purpose,  because  there  is  a  much  greater  proportion  of 
power  than  required  at  the  beginning  of  the  compressor's 
stroke.  This  can  be  rectified  by  making  the  connection 
diagonally  at  some  other  angle  than  90  degrees. 

If,  as  is  no  doubt  the  case,  there  are  still  many  refriger- 
ating engineers  who  question  the  advantages  that  are 
claimed  for  compound  compression,  there  are  but  few,  and 
certainly  none  among  those  who  have  lengthened  experience 
with  compound  engines,  who  fail  to  duly  appreciate  the 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  141 

effects  of  compound  expansion.  Where  the  load  is  steady,  as 
in  a  refrigerating  machine,  a  tandem  compound  has  many 
advantages  over  a  single  cylinder  Corliss  engine;  it  gives 
more  even  running  with  smaller  fly-wheel,  and  requires  less 
working-  expenses  to  make  good  the  wear  and  tear. 

It  is  well  known  that  no  form  of  engine  has  less  loss  by 
friction  than  a  beam  engine;  and  when  the  connecting  rod 
big-end  moves  in  the  arc  of  a  circle,  with  a  versed  sine  of 
only  an  inch  or  two,  instead  of  in  the  circle  of  the  crank  pin 
path,  then  friction  on  crosshead  guides  is  reduced  to  a 
minimum. 

Having  been  the  first  engineer  to  introduce  and  design 
tandem  compounds  in  Australia,  the  author  may  (without 
knowing  it)  be  a  little  prejudiced  in  his  preference  for  them; 
be  this  as  it  may,  he  thought  some  short  time  since  that  it 
might  be  possible  to  arrange  a  pair  of  single-acting  com- 
pressors with  a  single  slide  valve  engine — either  simple  or 
compound — under  a  new  design  which  should  by  the  adop- 
tion of  levers  unite  all  the  best  features  of  a  modern  machine 
in  a  simple  and  effective  combination,  in  which  the  engine 
and  the  two  compressors  should  be  all  in  line  with  one 
another,  and  erected  on  one  compact  sole  plate  and  foun- 
dation. 

The  machine  as  designed,  for  better  or  worse,  is  shown 
in  perspective  on  following  page,  and  in  sectional  elevation  by 
Fig.  95,  and  is  now  open  to  the  free  comments  of  machine 
builders  and  machine  users,  whose  criticisms,  however  harsh, 
will  be  gladly  welcomed  if  genuine.  No  machine  is  perfect, 
and  this  one  has  many  points  to  which  exception  will  be 
taken;  still,  it  is  only  by  the  gfadual  elimination  of  faults  that 
any  machine  approaches  that  perfection  to  which  it  can  never 
arrive. 

An  inspection  of  the  two  figures  will  show  that  there  is 
a  single  horizontal  engine — by  preference  for  large  machines 
a  tandem  compound — which  is  made  with  a  high  foundation 
plate,  so  as  to  afford  space  in  which  to  carry  a  lever,  rocking 
beam,  or  bell  crank,  centered  right  under  the  guides.  There 
is  only  one  single  bent  crank  on  the  shaft,  but  with  an  extra 
long  crank  pin,  this  crank  shaft  may  have  a  fly-wheel  on  one 
or  both  sides  of  the  machine,  but  is  never  subjected  to  tor- 


142 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


sion  other  than  that  due  to  the  work  of  the  fly-wheel,  which, 
as  will  be  seen  later  on,  is  extremely  small.     The  interven- 


PERSPECTIVE    VIEW  — ANTARCTIC    REFRIGERATING    MACHINE  —  BEAM 
PATTERN — TEN    TON. 

tion  of  the  rocking-  levers  at  different  angles  to  the   main 
center,  and  the   different  angles  of  the  two  connecting-  rods 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


143 


with  regard  to  the  crank  pin,  puts  the  steam  piston  so  far 
behind  that  of  the  compressor,  that  when  the  engine  is  at 
half  stroke  the  compressor  piston  has  completed  six-sev- 
enths of  its  journey.  The  combination  of  the  connecting- 
rods  and  cranks  forms  a  most  effective  toggle  joint,  and  they 
operate  on  both  compressors  without  any  torsion  on  the 
shaft.  As  the  strains  are  all  on  the  one  center  line,  and  the 


FlG.   95. — SECTION    OF    BEAM    PATTERN    ANTARCTIC   COMPRESSOR. 

machine  is  self-contained,  hardly  any  foundation  is  neces- 
sary. As  the  connecting  links  to  the  compressor  crossheads 
hardly  move  an  inch  out  of  the  compressor's  vertical  line, 
the  friction  of  the  guides  is  only  nominal.  The  adjustment 
of  clearance  is  easily  effected  by  lining  under  the  bushes  at 
the  ends  of  the  main  lever,  thus  dispensing  with  the 
nuisance  of  screws  and  nuts.  The  piston  rod  and  connect- 


144 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION, 


ing"  rod  of  the  engine  work  between  the  compressor  links. 
The  compressor  cylinders  themselves  are  shown  on  a  larger 
scale  in  Fig-.  58,  and  it  will  be  noted  that  they  are  plain  bar- 
rel casting's,  the  belts  or  chambers  around  the  bottom  ends 
being1  cast  separate  with  the  stuffing-boxes. 

The  resolution  of  the  forces  in  this  machine  has  been 
worked  out  on  the  same  principle  as  those  shown  by  Fig-.  94, 
and  the  diagram  produced  is  given  by  Fig-.  96.  In  this  the 
same  compressor  diagram  is  used  as  before,  but  it  will  be 


FlG.  96. — DIAGRAMS  OF  ENGINE  AND  COMPRESSOR  FROM  BEAM  MACHINE. 

noted  that  the  point  where  the  engine  is  on  the  center,  and 
where  there  is  no  power  to  be  given  off  to  the  compressor, 
is  much  nearer  to  the  commencement  of  the  compressor's 
stroke  than  in  the  right-angled  arrangement.  The  engine 
power  in  this  diagram  is  drawn  a  little  excessive,  perhaps, 
for  comparison  with  the  work  of  the  compressor,  but  it  will 
be  noted  that  the  compressor  card  is  all  but  entirely  covered 
by  the  horizontal  lines. 

This  design  can  be  modified  by  putting  a  high  and  low 
pressure  steam  cylinder  side-by-side  instead  of  in  tandem, 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


145 


and  for  very  large  machines  the  levers  would  obviously  be 
well  below  the  floor  line. 

GEARED   COMPRESSORS. 

Some  English  builders  of  refrigerating-  machines  favor 
the  use  of  gears,  and  build  double-acting  horizontal  compres- 
sors driven  by  means  of  spur  gear  from  a  horizontal  engine 
running  at  a  higher  speed.  The  saving  by  this  arrange- 
ment, if  any,  arises  from  being  able  to  use  a  small  steam 
engine,  running  at  a  greater  number  of  revolutions  per 
minute  than  the  compressor.  Against  this  has  to  be  set  all 


FlG.  97. — HORIZONTAL    COMPOUND   CONDENSING   ENGINE   GEARED   TO 
HORIZONTAL    COMPRESSOR. 

the  complication  of  extra  shafting,  and  the  noise  and  friction 
of  the  gearing.  It  is  extremely  doubtful  whether  this  form 
of  compressor  can  show  a  lower  consumption  of  steam  for 
the  same  weight  of  ammonia  compressed  than  the  best 
directly  driven  machines.  Such  an  arrangement  must  take 
up  an  immense  floor  space,  as  seen  by  Fig.  97,  and  for 
obvious  reasons  it  is  not  likely  to  have  many  imitators,  the 
more  so,  as  later  developments  in  machine  design  permit  of 
a  much  higher  piston  speed  for  compressors  than  was  pos- 


146  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION, 

sible  in  old  forms,  which  are  restricted  in  their  delivery 
through  having-  both  the  inlet  and  outlet  valves  in  the  top 
covers  or  heads  of  the  cylinders. 

In  other  arrangements  horizontal  compressors  are 
geared  to  a  vertical  engine,  and  vertical  compressors  to 
horizontal  engines,  but  they  appear  to  be  principally  confined 
to  English  practice.  In  a  large  London  brewery  there  are 
three  pairs  of  compressors  set  all  in  a  line,  each  pair  having 
a  mortise-wheel  gearing  into  an  iron  pinion  on  the  main  driv- 
ing", or  extended  engine,  shaft.  As  the  compressors  are  of 
the  old  fashioned  type  with  two  valves  in  the  head,  the  maxi- 
mum speed  is  fifty-five  revolutions,  and  the  gearing"  is  as  2 
to  1.  As  the  stroke  is  only  fifteen  inches  there  is  no 
doubt  that  with  more  modern  valve  arrangements  these 
compressors  could  be  driven  direct  from  the  engine.  It 
must  not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  there  is  an  advantage  in 
being"  able  to  put  one,  two  or  three  pairs  to  work  as  the 
demand  for  cold  arises,  and  that  the  risk  from  break-down  of 
a  compressor  is  minimized  if  your  engine  is  never  to  be  laid 
up.  With  machines  from  experienced  builders  there  does 
not  seem  to  be  any  reason  why  the  compressors  should  not 
be  as  reliable  as  the  engine. 

BELTED    COMPRESSORS. 

No  account  of  refrigerating  machines  would  be  complete 
without  a  chapter  on  belted  compressors,  for  while  sepa- 
rately they  may  be  of  comparative  insignificance  when  com- 
pared with  the  giant  steam  machines,  running  up  to  as  high 
as  500  tons  capacity,  they  are  in  the  aggregate  of  immense 
importance,  owing  to  their  more  widely  extended  use.  The 
development  of  modern  creameries  and  dairies,  with  their 
steam  driven  separators  and  churns,  has  necessitated  in  the 
majority  of  instances,  the  addition  of  a  refrigerating  machine 
of  proportionate  power.  In  the  case  of  advanced  retail 
butchers  who  employ  steam  choppers  and  other  machines, 
and  who,  like  the  dairy  men,  need  refrigerators  to  keep  pace 
with  the  times,  the  line  shafting  generally  fitted  up  on  the 
premises  enables  a  small  refrigerator  to  be  simply  driven 
by  means  of  pulleys  and  belts.  To  meet  the  demand  which 
has  thus  sprung  up,  there  has  been  a  great  increase  in  the 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  147 

designs  for   small    plants,  and   their   makers   now  may   be 
reckoned  by  hundreds. 

Belt  driven  compressors  may  be  broadly  classified  under 
two  divisions,  namely,  the  "open  "and  "inclosed."  About 
the  former  class  very  little  need  be  said,  as  any  of  the  types 
of  compressing-  cylinders  already  referred  to  may  be  fitted 
up  with  pulleys  on  their  crank  shafts,  instead  of  having-  a 
steam  eng-ine  directly  coupled  to  the  same  crank  or  a  sepa- 
rate one.  Such  machines  need  to  differ  in  no  other  way  from 
an  ordinary  steam  driven  compressor,  but  it  is  obvious  that 
with  only  one  single-acting-  compressing-  cylinder,  a  very 
heavy  fly-wheel  is  necessary,  because  in  such  case  the  work 
is  all  concentrated  in  about  the  sixth  part  of  a  revolution. 
The  work  of  the  piston  shown  by  the  indicator  card  from  the 
compressor,  when  transformed  by  the  action  of  the  connect- 
ing- rod  and  crank,  and  bent  round  in  the  circle  of  the  crank 
pin,  would  appear  somewhat  as  Fig-.  98,  where  the  radial  lines 
in  the  lower  diagram  correspond  to  the  work  of  the  indicator 
diagram  above,  a  rectangle  equal  to  the  distance  between  the 
two  outer  circles,  D  E,  multiplied  by  the  length  of  the  inner 
or  crank  pin  circle,  representing-  the  mean  work  of  the  belt. 
The  uncrossed  circular  lines  cover  the  area  representing 
the  work  which  has  to  be  put  into  the  fly-wheel,  while  the 
uncrossed  radial  lines  show  the  work  that  must  be  taken 
from  the  fly-wheel,  if  the  work  of  the  belt  is  uniform.  The 
mean  leng-th  of  these  radial  lines  multiplied  by  the  leng-th  of 
the  arc  of  the  circle  they  stand  upon  (or  the  area  of  the  cam 
shaped  fig-ure,  if  the  circle  was  opened  out  to  a  straight  line) 
is  exactly  equal  to  the  area  of  the  compressor  diagram.  The 
diameter  of  the  crank  pin  path,  C  D,  is  exactly  the  stroke  of 
the  compressor,  A  B. 

As  the  power  transmission  capacity  of  a  belt  is  uniform 
it  is  evident  from  the  above  illustration  that  in  the  absence 
of  a  fly-wheel,  such  a  machine  would  require  belt  power  to  be 
provided  about  six  times  as  great  as  would  be  necessary  if 
there  were  uniform  resistance.  With  two  single-acting 
compressors  combined,  or  with  one  that  is  double-acting, 
the  working  is  more  regular,  as  there  are  two  cycles  in  a 
revolution,  and  appears  as  in  Fig.  99,  to  which  the  explanation 
of  Fig.  98  applies,  it  being  noted  that  the  circular  lines  now 


148 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


cover  twice  as  wide  a  space  as  before,  representing-  double 
the  belt  power,  that  is,  the  rectangle  formed  by  the  length 
of  the  crank  pin  circle  multiplied  by  the  distance  D  E.  The 
leng-ths  of  the  arcs  on  which  the  radial  lines  stand,  multiplied 


FlG.   98. — DIAGRAM    SINGLE-ACTING   BELTED    COMPRESSOR. 

by  the  mean  lengths  of  such  lines,  represent,  as  before, 
areas  exactly  equivalent  to  the  area  of  the  two  compressor 
cards  above,  and  the  maximum  resistance  of  the  compressor 
piston  only  a  little  over  three  times,  instead  of  six  times, 
the  mean  belt  power. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


149 


From  these  diagrams  it  would  appear  that  with  belt-driv- 
ing- a  small  single-acting-   machine   requires  more  fly-wheel 


°     £     2     8     %     £ 


FlG.   99.—  DIAGRAM    TWO    SINGLE-ACTING   BELTED    COMPRESSORS. 


than  one  of  twice  the  capacity,  if  it  is  double-acting-  and  has 
double  the  belt  power. 


150 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION, 


Fig.  100  shows  a  belted  compressor  of  the  open  type,  as 
designed  by  the  author  for  small  power,  where  a  submerged 


FlG.   100. — BELTED    COMPRESSOR    ON    SUBMERGED    CONDENSER. 

condenser    is    preferable.      This    is    an    extremely    simple 
machine,  although    the    compressor    being    compound,  the 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  151 

framework  and  condenser  tank  are  in  one  casting-,  and  carry 
the  single  crank  with  overhung-  belt  pulleys.  Very  little  or 
no  fly-wheel  is  necessary  with  this  machine  on  account  of  the 
equable  turning-  moments,  which  is  described  fully  with  dia- 
grams under  the  head  of  compound  compressors. 

Fig-.  101  represents  two  similar  compressors  coupled 
tog-ether  and  driven  by  disc  cranks  on  a  straig-ht  shaft;  each 
of  these  is  double  the  power  of  that  shown  by  Fig-.  100. 

By  "closed"  machines,  is  meant  all  those  in  which  the 
crank  and  connecting  rods,  which  give  motion  to  the  com- 
pressor pistons,  are  inclosed  in  a  chamber  connected  with 
the  gas  inlet,  and  so  subjected  to  the  back  pressure.  There 
are  no  piston  rod  packings  required  in  such  cases,  and  the 
main  stuffing-box  is  around  the  crank  shaft,  where  the  pack- 
ing is  subjected  to  a  slow  rotary  wear,  which  is  continuous 
and  in  one  direction,  instead  of  to  the  more  rapid  and  recipro- 
cating wear  of  the  ordinary  piston  rod.  If  the  oil  level  is 
maintained  above  the  top  of  the  shaft  in  these  machines,  all 
escape  of  gas  is  prevented  through  the  packing  and  glands. 

The  Westinghouse  machine,  Fig.  57,  is  one  of  the 
finest  examples  of  this  class  of  machine  that  is  built;  the 
builders  say  they  believe  in  putting  their  eggs  in  a  number 
of  baskets,  and  prefer  small  units  as  more  economical  where 
the  work  varies  \vith  the  season.  Although  the  jointing  of 
the  back  cover  of  these  compressors  with  a  simple  flat  sur- 
face, which  requires  ports  to  be  cut  in  the  jointing  material, 
has  been  referred  to  as  an  undesirable  feature,  and  although 
horizontal  valves  are  not  so  trustworthy  as  vertical  ones,  yet 
there  are  in  this  machine  a  number  of  points  which  com- 
mend themselves  to  the  experienced  engineer,  and  evidence 
careful  thought.  Among  these  are  the  plain  barrels  or 
liners  to  the  compressor  cylinders;  these  enable  hard  and 
homogeneous  metal  to  be  used,  and  permit  of  simple  renew- 
als. The  disposition  of  the  centers  of  the  cylinders  above 
and  below  the  center  of  the  yoke — so  that  when  the  crank 
shaft  revolves  in  the  proper  direction  the  twisting  strain  on 
the  yoke  is  practically  neutralized — is  a  sound  mechanical 
device.  There  have  been  some  bad  imitations  of  this 
machine  seen  by  the  author,  where  the  true  spirit  of  the 
original  was  quite  lost. 


152 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION, 


LONGITUDINAL  SECTION  - — 


END  ELEVATION 


' PLAN  _    

FlG.   101.— COMPOUND    COMPRESSOR,   TWO-TON    ICE  MAKING    PLANT 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


153 


The  Remington  machine  is  representative  of  numbers 
of  different  makers'  closed  compressors  which  only  differ 
from  one  another  in  small  details;  in  all  these  cases  there  are 
one  or  two  open-mouthed  cylinders  arranged  over  the  crank 
casing,  to  which  the  return  gas  is  led.  The  improved  Rem- 
ington machines  are  built  with  both  suction  and  discharge 
valves  in  top  head  of  the  cylinder.  For  latest  compressor  see 
Chapter  XX. 

Fig.  102  is  a  section,  and  Fig.  103  a  perspective  view  of 
an  inclosed  machine,  with  compound  compression,  having 


FlG.    102.  — SECTION    OF   ENCLOSED   ANTARCTIC    COMPRESSOR. 

both  cylinders  opening  directly  into  the  crank  chamber,  and 
taking  power  on  both  the  up  and  down  strokes.  The  two 
connecting  rods  at  their  small  ends  are  coupled  direct  to  a 
crosshead  on  the  trunk  between  the  pistons.  The  details  of 
this  machine  are  described  herein  fully  under  compound  com- 
pressors. In  place  of  an  internal  crank  shaft,  some  inclosed 
machines  work  by  means  of  levers  or  beams  inside  the  casing, 
and  when  the  main  center  or  vibrating  axis  which  gives  the 
motion  is  kept  down  in  the  bottom  of  the  casing,  a  very  small 
quantity  of  oil  is  sufficient  to  seal  the  shaft  at  the  stuffing-box. 


154 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


FlO.    103.— ANTARCTIC    COMPOUND    COMPRESSOR,    PERSPECTIVE    OF 
ENCLOSED    TYPE    MACHINE. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


155 


COMBINED   MACHINES. 

Small  refrig-e  rating-  machines  are  sometimes  made  not 
only  with  their  condensers  combined  on  one  sole  plate  as  in 
Fig-.  100,  but  with  both  condenser  and  refrig-erator  all  com- 
bined, as  in  the  carbonic  acid  machines,  Fig's.  11  and  12.  Fig-. 
104  shows  two  Eng-lish  machines  of  the  Reming-ton  type  with 
inclosed  cranks,  which  are  driven  by  a  vertical  intermediate 
engine;  and  with  the  condenser,  refrig-erator,  and  circulating- 
brine  pumps,  are  all  erected  complete  on  one  sole  plate.  A 


FlG.    104. — ENGLISH    MACHINE,   KILBOURN    ENCLOSED   TYPE. 

number  of  these  have  been  made  by  the  Kilbourn  company 
for  shipboard  use.  Fig1.  105  shows  a  step  further  than  the 
last  fig-ure,  and  represents  a  small  machine  of  one  and  one- 
half  tons  refrigerating-  capacity,  with  its  boiler  as  well  as  a 
submerged  condenser  all  fitted  up  complete — including-  its 
feed  injector — on  to  one  cast  iron  sole  plate.  This  machine 
is  made  by  the  Clyde  Engineering-  Co.,  Ltd.,  of  Sydney,  for 
special  requirements. 

COMPOUND    AMMONIA    COMPRESSORS. 

The  subject  of  compound  compression  has  already  been 
referred  to  once  or  twice  on  previous  pages,  but  it  is  one 


156  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

which  should  have  fuller  consideration  given  to  it,  because 
there  is  no  doubt  the  system  is  making-  headway  in  connec- 
tion with  mechanical  refrigeration;  and  it  is  possible  that  in 
the  near  future  compound  ammonia  compressors  will  be  the 
rule,  as  they  are  now  the  exception. 

If  it  be  said  that  compound  compression  complicates  the 
machinery,  and  that  the  ice  manufacturer  or  cold  storage 
proprietor  wants  thing's  as  simple  as  possible,  it  will  be  well 
to  show  that  there  is  not  necessarily  any  more  complication 
and  there  need  be  no  greater  number  of  parts  with  a  com- 
pound compressor  than  there  is  with  a  pair  of  ordinary 
single-acting1  compressors;  and  that  under  some  arrange- 
ments the  compound  machine  is  really  much  the  cheaper, 
simpler,  and  better  in  the  matters  of  first  cost,  multiplicity 
of  parts,  and  the  attention  required  when  at  work. 

Admitting-  for  the  sake  of  arg-ument  that  a  compound 
compressor  actually  has  the  same  number  of  working-  parts 
as  an  ordinary  double-acting-,  or  a  pair  of  single-acting-  com- 
pressors, let  us  ask:  What  are  the  inducements  to  lead  to  its 
adoption?  The  answer  to  this  is  :  First,  a  great  equalizing 
of  the  turning-  moments,  which  lessens  the  loads  or  strains 
on  the  cranks,  connecting-  rods,  and  pins.  This  enables  these 
parts  to  be  made  of  less  strength,  and  so  reduces  the  cost  of 
the  machine,  while  the  lessened  friction  of  the  wearing-  sur- 
faces economizes  the  power  required  to  drive  it.  Secondly, 
the  ability  to  cool  the  g-as  in  the  intermediate  stag-e,  which— 
by  reducing-  its  volume — enables  the  work  of  the  engine  to  be 
lessened  to  a  most  important  extent  in  large  installations; 
and,  Thirdly,  the  much  smoother  working,  and  reduced 
wear  and  tear  in  the  whole  machine,  which  is  secured  by  the 
altered  conditions. 

The  idea  of  compounding  a  compressor  appears  to  be 
more  than  thirty  years  old,  as  there  were  patents  granted  in 
connection  with  it  in  1867.  The  first  compound  ammonia 
compressors  in  Australia  were  built  in  1885  for  the  Fresh 
Food  and  Ice  Co.,  of  Sydney,  to  the  designs  of  their  chief  en- 
gineer, the  late  W.  G.  Lock,  who  patented  a  special  invention 
to  maintain  the  space  below  the  pistons,  in  both  high  and  low 
compressors,  at  the  back,  or  refrigerator,  gas  pressure. 

Among  the  notable  builders  of  compound  ammonia  com- 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


157 


FIG.    105.— SMALL    ICE     MACHINE— CLYDE   ENGINEERING    CO.,    LTD., 
NEW   SOUTH   WALES,    AUSTRALIA. 


158  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

pressors  at  the  present  day  there  are  The  York  Co.,  of  York, 
Pa.,  U.  S.  A.  ;  The  Linde  Co.,  and  The  Haslam  Co.,  in  Eng- 
land; Clyde  Engineering-  Co.,  Ltd.,  in  Sydney,  N.  S.  W.,  and 
Humble  &  Nicholson,  of  Geelong,  Victoria. 

Fig-.  70,  on  pag-e  115,  represents  a  35-ton  ice  machine  by 
the  York  Co.,  and  Fig-.  66  is  a  section  of  the  two  cylinders  of 
the  compressor  by  the  same  makers,  who  always  arrang-e 
them  vertically,  while  the  steam  engine  may  be  either  verti- 
cal or  horizontal.  In  the  case  of  only  one  high  and  one  low 
pressure  cylinder,  the  arrangement  of  the  whole  machine 
may  be  the  same  as  in  either  of  the  Figures  81  to  85,  with 
horizontal  engines  ;  or  as  86  and  89,  with  vertical  engines. 
Larger  machines,  as  shown  by  Fig.  70,  are  made  with  two  low 
pressure  cylinders,  which  are  on  the  outside,  with  the  one 
high  pressure  cylinder  between  them;  in  this  case  the  crank 
pins  of  the  low  pressure  pistons  are  in  line  together,  and  the 
high  pressure  crank  pin,  on  which  the  horizontal  engine  works, 
is  at  180  degrees — or  opposite.  Under  a  design  for  a  still  more 
powerful  machine,  the  builders  place  four  compressor  cylin- 
ders in  a  row,  operated  by  four  cranks;  two  being  high 
pressure,  on  the  outside,  with  the  low  pressure  cylinders  be- 
tween them  ;  and  the  two  connecting  rods,  from  a  cross-over 
compound  engine,  operate  one  each  on  the  two  outer  cranks. 
There  are  here  Jire  main  bearings  on  the  shaft.yiwr  crank  pins, 
and  four  crosshead  pins  to  look  after  ;  the  fly-wheels  are 
overhung,  and  therefore  must  wear  down  the  outer  bearings 
more  than  the  inner  ones.  (All  that  is  effected  here  can  be 
carried  out  with  two  bearings,  two  cranks  and  one  fly-wheel. ) 
The  pipes  from  the  cylinder  heads  connecting  the  high  and 
low  pressure  cylinders,  through  the  intervention  of  the  in- 
termediate condenser  or  cooler,  are  seen  at  the  top  of  the 
machine  in  Fig.  70.  (For  latest  design  see  Chapter  XX.) 

Messrs.  Humble  &  Nicholson,  of  Geelong,  make  great 
numbers  of  small  compound  ammonia  machines  for  the 
butter  and  cheese  factories  of  Victoria,  which  have  two 
single-acting  compressors  arranged  side-by-side,  driven  by  a 
pair  of  cranks  set  at  180  degrees;  but  their  machines  are  all 
horizontal  instead  of  vertical  like  the  York  machine. 

There  is  a  peculiar  feature  about  all  these  single-acting 
side-by-side  compound  compressors,  in  that  the  smaller  or 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  159 

high  pressure  piston  is  actually  a  motor  on  the  "down"  or 
•'out"  stroke.  When  the  gas  is  being-  expelled  from  the 
large,  cylinder  into  the  small  one,  it  is  of  course  compressed 
into  the  smaller  volume  at  an  increasing-  pressure,  and  this 
pressure  acting-  on  the  smaller  piston  constitutes  it  a  motor, 
which,  acting-  on  the  hig-h  pressure  crank,  assists  the  rota- 
tion of  the  shaft,  and  therefore  assists  the  engine  to  force  up 
the  larg-e  piston  against  its  increasingload. 

If  there  was  no  friction  this  would  mean  that  the  work 
which  the  engine  had  to  perform  would  be  equivalent  on  that 
stroke — that  is  the  low  pressure  or  first  compression  — 
simply  to  the  pressure  of  the  gas  on  the  difference  in  the 
areas  of  the  two  pistons.  Unfortunately,  however,  in  such 
cases  there  is  a  great  deal  of  friction,  and  with  such  machines, 
the  work  which  the  small  piston  is  theoretically  able  to  do 
is  materially  discounted,  because  it  has  to  be  transmitted 
through  two  pistons,  rod  packings,  two  crosshead  pins  and 
guide  blocks,  two  crank  pins,  and  the  main  bearings  of  the 
shaft;  with  friction  upon  friction,  causing  increased  wear  and 
tear,  demanding  more  attention,  and  resulting  in  loss  of 
power  at  every  transfer. 

In  the  compound  ammonia  compressors  made  by  the 
Linde  and  Haslam  companies,  this  loss  of  power  and  wear 
and  tear  are  avoided,  because  the  high  and  low  pressure  pis- 
tons are  both  coupled  on  to  one  piston  rod,  and  the  cylinders 
are  connected  by  an  intermediate  chamber  in  connection  with 
the  suction  or  back  pressure  side.  Under  this  arrangement 
the  pressure  of  the  gas  in  its  intermediate  stage  is  conveyed 
by  a  pipe  from  the  front  of  the  low  pressure  piston  to  the 
back  end  of  the  smaller  cylinder,  where,  acting  on  the  smaller 
piston  in  the  opposite  direction,  it  directly,  and  not  indirectly, 
balances  an  equivalent  area  on  the  large  piston.  In  such 
case,  of  course,  the  transference  of  power  is  without  any  fric- 
tion or  wear  and  tear  due  to  journals  and  brasses,  as  in  the 
other  plan;  and  it  certainly  is  a  much  better  mechanical 
arrangement  from  an  engineering  standpoint. 

Fig.  106  shows  such  a  Linde  compound  ammonia  com- 
pressor, of  European  make,  combined  with  a  compound 
steam  engine.  In  this  machine  the  whole  engine  power  is 
applied  to  one  crank,  the  whole  of  the  power  to  work  the 


160 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION, 


compressor  being-  taken  off  the  other  crank.  In  this  there  is 
a  considerable  amount  of  friction,  and  a  relatively  very  strong 
shaft  is  required,  with  bearing's  to  correspond,  to  withstand 
the  combined  strains,  or  the  sum  of  the  working-  stresses  of 
the  two  machines. 


L.RCYL* 


FlG.    106. — COMPOUND    KNGINE  AND    COMPOUND    COMPRESSOR    (LINPE). 

The  "Antarctic"  compound  compressor  is  so  desig-ned 
that  the  pressure  of  the  g-as  during-  the  filling-  of  the  smaller 
cylinder  acts  upon  its  piston  and  directly  balances  an  equiv- 
alent area  of  the  large  piston,  just  the  same  as  in  the  Linde 
machine  (Fig-.  106);  but  the  whole  arraiig-ement  is  simplified 
by  the  device  of  casting-  the  two  pistons  tog-ether,  and  then 
passing-  the  g-as  throug-h  the  center  of  them  both,  from  the 
low  to  the  hig-h  pressure  cylinder,  instead  of  conveying*  it 
around  by  a  circuitous  route  of  pipes  and  passag-es. 


FlG.  107. — COMPOUND  ENGINE  AND  COMPOUND  COMPRESSOR  (ANTARCTIC). 

Fig-.  107  shows  one  of  these  machines  combined  with  a 
compound  engine,  where  nearly  all  the  work  is  communi- 
cated directly  from  the  engine  to  the  compressor,  and  the 
crank  shaft  and  cranks  only  take  up  the  difference,  instead 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  161 

of  the  sum,  of  the  loads.  If  this  arrangement  is  compared 
carefully  with  Fig-.  106  it  will  be  seen  that  in  the  latter  case 
the  work  of  the  connecting-  rods  and  crank  shaft  is  very 
much  less. 

Fig-.  108  is  a  section  throug-h  the  enclosing  casing  and 
two  cylinders  of  the  "Antarctic"  Australian  compressor  (see 
following  page),  with  the  following  explanatory  references : 

A.  Main  casing-  enclosing-  the  two  cylinders. 

B.  Low  pressure  cylinder. 

C.  Low  pressure  piston. 

D.  High  pressure  cylinder. 

E.  High  pressure  piston. 

F.  Low  pressure  inlet  valve. 

G.  Low  pressure  outlet  valve. 

H.  Passage  from  low  to  high  pressure  cylinder. 

J.  High  pressure  inlet  valve. 

K.  High  pressure  outlet  valve. 

L.  Main  inlet  branch. 

M.  Main  delivery  branch. 

N  N.  Piston  rods. 

O.  Water  jacket  to  h.  p.  cylinder. 

P.  Crosshead  to  piston  trunk. 

Q.  Openings   to    insure    the    filling    of  cylinder    at    full    back 
pressure. 

As  the  two  cylinders  both  open  into  the  casing,  any  leak- 
age past  the  pistons  is  intercepted,  and  as  there  are  no  pis- 
ton rods  attached  to  the  centers  of  the  pistons,  very  large 
central  valves  can  be  fitted  in.  The  top  cover  or  bonnet  is 
secured  by  only  four  large  bolts,  and  when  the  four  nuts  are 
off,  three  of  the  valves  are  accessible,  as  the  valve  in  the  low 
pressure  piston  is  so  made  as  to  come  right  up  through  the 
trunk.  The  lower  valve  is  accessible  by  means  of  the  special 
door,  which  also  enables  the  casing  to  be  cleaned.  As  the 
rods  do  not  work  through  the  cylinder  bottom,  they  can  be 
sealed  with  a  considerable  depth  of  oil  in  this  casing  without 
any  risk  of  it  being  drawn  into  the  system.  The  cylinders 
are  plain  barrels  or  pipes,  and  thus  they  can  be  easily  cast, 
bored,  lapped  and  renewed.  As  the  valves  in  the  pistons 
open  during  the  down  stroke,  and  insure  practically  equal 
pressure  in  the  two  cylinders,  the  work  to  be  done  on  the 
down  stroke  is  found  by  simply  taking  the  mean  intermediate 
pressure,  less  the  back  or  casing  pressure  from  the  refrigera- 
tor, and  multiplying  it  by  the  area  of  the  annulus  of  the  large 
piston.  The  upper  annulus  is  of  course  always  exposed  to 
the  casing  pressure.  With  the  relative  areas  of  the  pistons 
(ii) 


162 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION, 


at  3  :  1  the  resistance  or  load  on  the  down  stroke  is  then  the 
mean  pressure  as  above,  multiplied  by  two-thirds  the  area  of 
the  low  pressure  piston,  and  for  the  up  stroke,  the  load  is 


the  forward  pressure  less  the  casing  pressure,  multiplied  by 
only  one-third  the  area  of  the  large  piston. 

It  will  be  as  well  in  order  to  facilitate  a  proper  compari- 
son between  an  ordinary  single-acting-  compressor,  and  one 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  163 

of  the  type  illustrated  by  Figs.  106,  107  and  108,  to  assume  a 
certain  size  of  machine  and  then  calculate  the  loads  on  the  two 
pistons,  and  the  strains  or  stresses  on  their  respective  crank 
pins,  connecting-  rods,  and  other  parts.  Taking- therefore  as 
a  very  common  size  a  20-ton  refrig-erating-  machine,  we  may 
assume  a  compressor  diameter  of  a  little  over  eleven  inches, 
or  say  for  round  numbers,  100  square  inches,  as  the  area  of 
the  piston,  with  a  back  pressure  of  twenty  pounds  by  the 
g-aug-e,  or  thirty-five  pounds  absolute,  and  a  condenser  press- 
ure of  160  pounds  by  the  g-aug-e,  equal  to  175  pounds  absolute, 
then  the  ratio  of  compression  would  be  5  : 1. 

In  the  ordinary  compressor,  the  load  on  the  piston  after 
the  full  pressure  is  reached  will  be  175—35=140  pounds  X  100 
=14,000  pounds.  This  pressure  continues  to  the  end  of  the 
stroke,  and  all  the  parts  of  the  machine  must  be  propor- 
tioned for  this  amount  of  stress  or  load. 

In  the  case  of  the  compound  compressor,  as  Fig-.  108, 
with  the  small  piston  one-third  the  area  of  the  large  one,  the 
area  of  100  square  inches  would  have  one-third  or  33.3 
square  inches  of  it  neutralized  by  the  pressure  on  the  piston 
above,  as  it  is  manifestly  the  same  pressure  in  both  cylinders 
during-  the  down  stroke.  Hence  the  effective  area  of  the 
larg-e  piston  acting-  on  the  gas  being-  compressed  would  be 
66.6  square  inches  only,  instead  of  100  square  inches.  If  the 
g-as  is  humid,  or  is  compressed  in  accordance  with  Mar- 
iotte's  law,  isothermally,  into  one-third  of  its  original  vol- 
ume, the  pressure  will  rise  to  35X3=105  pounds  absolute,  in 
the  first  compression,  and  if  compressed  without  loss  of 
heat,  or  in  accordance  with  the  adiabatic  law,  it  will  reach  to 
about  114.7  pounds  absolute.  Assuming-  then  a  dry  compres- 
sion, the  maximum  resistance  to  the  low  pressure  compound 
piston  will  be  114.7  pounds,  for  round  fig-ures,  say  115 — 35=80 
X 66.6=5, 328  pounds,  which  is  the  greatest  stress  or  load  on 
the  machine,  instead  of  14,000  pounds,  as  in  the  other  case. 
Truly  a  wonderful  reduction  in  the  strains  to  be  provided 
for,  in  designing-  shafts,  rods  and  bearings. 

In  the  final  compression  or  up  stroke  the  load  cannot  be 
more  than  175 — 35=140  pounds  by  33.3  square  inches=4,662 
pounds.  This  is  a  less  final  pressure  than  the  down  stroke, 
but  the  point  of  expulsion  is  reached  much  earlier,  so  that  in 


164  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION, 

practice  the  horse  powers  of  the  up  and  down  strokes  corre- 
spond very  closely. 

It  is  abundantly  clear  from  the  foregoing"  calculation 
that  the  load  or  stress  on  the  motion  gearing  of  a  simple 
compressor  is  from  two  and  one-half  to  three  times  as  great 
as  it  need  be  in  one  of  these  compound  compressors  of  equal 
capacity,  quite  apart  from  the  disadvantages  of  unequal 
running,  trouble  about  clearance,  and  limited  piston  speed 
possible,  which  do  not  apply  with  the  same  force  to  com- 
pound compressors.  If  this  has  no  more  significance  than 
the  fact  that  the  same  weight  of  crank  shaft,  crank  connect- 
ing rods,  and  such  gearing,  which  is  necessary  for  an  ordi- 
nary compressor  of  twenty  tons  capacity,  will  answer  for  a 
compound  compressor  of  fifty  tons  refrigerating  power,  it  is 
even  then  sufficiently  startling  to  inspire  the  inquiry  :  If 
this  is  true  why  are  compound  compressors  not  more  com- 
monly used? 

No  doubt  the  scoffer  will  say,  "I  could  make  my  com- 
pressor double-acting  and  then  I  would  only  have  7,000 
pounds,  not  much  more  than  your  5,328  pounds,"  but  he 
would  have  full  pressure  at  both  ends,  loss  by  clearance  and 
short  period  of  expulsion — all  absent  from  the  compound 
machine. 

Incidentally,  there  is  another  feature  in  the  compound 
compressor  which  has  advantages,  in  that  it  produces  a  more 
continuous  flow  of  gas  from  the  refrigerating  coils,  approxi- 
mating to  ordinary  double  action.  The  effect  of  the  large 
piston  on  the  down  stroke  is  to  draw  into  the  casing  two-thirds 
of  the  low  pressure  cylinder-full  from  the  refrigerator,  owing 
to  the  enlargement  of  the  capacity  of  the  casing  chamber  by 
that  volume.  On  the  up  stroke  this  two-thirds  is  put  back 
into  the  chamber,  and  three-thirds,  or  full  volume,  is  drawn 
in  at  the  bottom  inlet  valve;  consequently  the  balance,  or  one- 
third  of  cylinder's  volume,  is  drawn  into  the  casing  on  the 
upstroke.  This  double  flow  of  gas  into  the  casing  reduces 
the  friction  on  the  inlet  or  suction  pipe. 

As  the  result  of  the  equable  distribution  of  the  work 
throughout  both  the  up  and  down  strokes,  these  compressors 
run  very  steadily,  and  the  author  saw  one  making  140  revo- 
lutions a  minute,  as  it  stood  on  the  fitting  shop  floor,  without 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


165 


a  single  holding-down  bolt.     It  was  found  to  be  quite  steady 
at  that  speed. 

In  simple  compression,  with  the  forward  and  backward 
gauge  pressures  at  twenty  pounds  and  140  pounds,  or  say 
thirty  five  pounds  and  155  pounds  absolute,  the  ratio  of  com- 
pression would  be  about  4^  :  1,  and  the  gas  would  all  have  to 
be  expelled  through  the  delivery  valve  into  the  condenser 
during  the  short  period  of,  say,  one-fourth  of  the  piston's 
stroke.  With  the  compound  machine  a  3  :  1  compression 
would  already  exist  when  the  second  compression  began,  so 
it  is  evident,  as  f  xf  —  4/^,  that  when  the  high  pressure  piston 


DOWN     STROKE 


ATMOSPHERIC 


FlG.   109. — THEORETICAL   DIAGRAM    SIXGLE-ACTIXG    COMPRESSOR. 

has  traveled  one-third  of  its  stroke  the  terminal  pressure 
will  be  reached,  and  therefore  the  expulsion  of  the  gas  would 
be  distributed  over  two-thirds  of  the  stroke  instead  of  being 
all  concentrated  on  the  last  quarter  of  the  stroke.  This  pro- 
portion is  as  eight  to  three,  therefore  the  compound  delivery 
would  extend  over  more  than  two  and  a  half  times  as  much  of 
the  piston's  stroke  as  the  other  one  would  do.  With  this 
free  get-away  and  more  uniform  delivery,  there  is  less  bank- 
ing up  of  pressure  and  oscillation  of  the  pressure  gauge  indi- 
cator, by  the  friction  of  the  pipes  and  the  jerky  supply  to 
the  condenser. 


166 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


Fig's.  109  to  112  illustrate  graphically  the  stresses  that 
have  just  been  described,  and  some  of  the  special  features  of 
compound  compression  by  theoretical  diagrams.  Fig-.  109 
is  an  indicator  card  from  an  ammonia  compressor,  working- 
between  thirty  pounds  and  160  pounds  pressure  absolute. 
From  A  to  B,  is  the  down  stroke  011  which  no  work  is  done, 
from  B  to  C  shows  the  work  of  compression,  and  C  to  D  the 
period  of  expulsion.  Both  isothermal  and  adiabatic  lines  are 
shown,  and  the  actual  curve  is  taken  for  the  purpose  of  com- 
parison, half  way  between  the  two. 

In  Fig-.  110  the  diagram  of  the  first  compression  to  one- 
third  of  the  original  volume,  shows  the  isothermal  line  at 


SECOND    COMPRESSION 

UP    STROKE 


FlG.   110. — THEORETICAL    DIAGRAM    ANTARCTIC    COMPRESSOR. 

30X3  =  90  pounds,  the  adiabatic  curve  rising  to  over  120 
pounds,  and  the  mean  pressure  at  the  point  O,  about  107 
pounds.  In  the  second  stage  of  compression,  carried  on  in 
the  smaller  cylinder,  the  curve  reaches  expulsion  pressure  at 
the  point  P,  or  about  one-third  of  the  stroke. 

In  order  to  ascertain  the  effect  on  the  piston  rods  and 
crossheads  of  these  different  gas  pressures  the  full  piston 
area  for  the  down  stroke  must  be  considered  as  reduced  by 
one-third,  and  for  the  up  stroke  by  two-thirds,  which  gives  the 
two  points  G  and  K  oil  the  card  as  the  result  of  first  com- 
pression. The  point  L  corresponds  with  P,  and  thus  while 
the  line  E  O  P  in  Fig.  110  corresponds  with  B  C  in  Fig. 
109  so  far  as  gas  pressure  on  the  square  inch  goes,  the  spaces 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


167 


which  are  hatched  with  vertical  lines  represent  in  proper 
proportion  the  actual  relative  amount  of  work  performed  by 
the  several  pistons,  and  the  different  lengths  of  the  vertical 
lines,  the  relative  stresses  or  resistances  to  which  the  piston 
rods  are  subjected  under  the  two  svstems,  with  the  actual 
work  of  same  in  both  cases. 

In  these  diagrams  the  greater  proportion  of  the  stroke 
L  M  during-  which  expulsion  takes  place  in  the  small  hig-h 
pressure  cylinder  is  very  noticeable  when  compared  with  C 
D  in  the  simple  compressor.  It  must  be  understood  that  J  K 


FIG.  ill. 


FIG.  112. 


and  H  G  both  represent  the  same  or  intermediate  pressure 
as  the  greater  length  J  O.  The  area  of  the  simple  cylinder 
being-  taken  as  unity,  is  represented  by  J  O.  The  low  pres- 
sure compound  cylinder's  effective  area  being-  two-thirds  of 
unity,  H  G  is  two-thirds  of  J  O,  and  similarly  the  hig-h  pres- 
sure cylinder  being-  one-third  the  area,  J  K  is  drawn  one- 
third  of  the  height,  to  show  graphically  the  absolute  pressure 
on  the  whole  piston,  instead  of  the  pressure  per  square  inch. 
Fig-s.  Ill  and  112  almost  explain  themselves.  They  are 
constructed  by  simply  curving  Fig's.  109  and  110  round  into 
a  circle  ;  they  exhibit  the  almost  steam  hammer  action  of  the 


168 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


one  case,  as  compared  with  the  even  distribution  of  the  load 
in  the  other  and  compound  one,  Fig1.  112. 

Figs.   113  and  114  are  copies  of  actual  indicator  cards 
taken  with  separate  springs  from  an  Antarctic  compressor 


F/RST   COMPRESSION   ANTARCTIC 

REFRIGERATOR. 

88  REVOLUTIONS  PER 

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THE  RELATIVE  AREA    of   CYLINDERS    BEING    AS     3  ."  / 
THE  MEAN  PRESSURE  ON  L.P.  PISTON  =  27  -O  AS  /IBOVE      ^- 
ON  H.P.  PISTON    Bo'/M   =26-5                                         f 

FlG.    113.  — INDICATOR    CARDS    FROM    AMMONIA    COMPRESSOR. 

running-  at  eighty-eight  revolutions,  and  up  to  171  pounds 
pressure  absolute.  In  constructing-  the  theoretical  cards, 
Fig.  110,  no  account  was  taken  of  the  chamber  H,  shown  in 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  159 

Fig-.  108,  as  it  does  not  affect  the  ultimate  results,  but  its 
effect  on  the  actual  indicator  card  is  clearly  seen. 

With  isothermal  compression  directly  from  a  low  pres- 
sure to  a  high  pressure  cylinder,  and  the  pistons  moving-  uni- 
formly tog-ether,  the  low  pressure  diagram  would  be  a  tri- 
angle, and  the  line  of  pressures  would  be  straig-ht  instead 
of  a  hyperbolic  curve.  With  a  chamber  like  H,  in  Fig-.  108, 
which  on  the  completion  of  the  down  stroke  is  filled  with 
g-as  of  the  same  pressure  as  that  in  the  high  pressure  cylin- 
der, the  lines  are  considerably  altered,  because  no  delivery 
from  the  low  pressure  cylinder  will  take  place  on  the  down 
stroke  until  equilibrium  is  established  on  both  sides  of  its 
outlet  valve;  and  this  is  kept  shut  by  the  greater  pressure 
above  it  at  the  commencement  of  the  stroke.  The  inclosed 
gas,  however,  is  free  to  pass  through  the  upper  valve  into  the 
small  cylinder,  and  consequently  when  the  pistons  descend 
it  enters  freely  into  the  same,  the  pressure  falling  above  and 
rising  below  until  the  twro  cylinders  and  the  connecting 
trunk  are  in  equilibrium;  when  such  is  the  case,  the  lower 
valve  opens,  and  the  high  and  low  pressure  cylinders  are 
then  in  direct  communication  with  one  another. 

In  Fig.  115  the  two  cards  are  reduced  to  a  common  scale 
and  plotted  together  like  the  cards  from  compound  engines, 
such  as  the  Westinghouse,  and  show  as  follows:  Commencing 
the  down  stroke  at  A,  from  A  to  B  the  gas  is  being  com- 
pressed in  the  one  cylinder  alone,  and  the  line  is  so  far  the 
ordinary  curve,  during  which  time  the  pressure  in  the  upper 
cylinder  has  been  descending  from  D  to  E  by  the  expansion 
of  the  entrapped  gas  in  the  chamber  into  the  small  cylinder, 
when  equilibrium  is  established.  This  equilibrium  is  shown 
at  the  points  B,  on  the  low  pressure  card,  and  E,  on  the  high 
pressure  one.  From  B  to  C  the  gas  is  passing  from  the  low 
to  the  high  pressure  cylinder,  and  the  line  E  to  F  is  practi- 
cally straight,  corresponding  with  the  line  B  to  C,  except 
so  far  as  it  is  affected  by  the  resistance  of  the  valves  or 
their  spring's.  The  curve  F  to  G  is  the  line  of  final  com- 
pression, and  the  distance  G  to  H  the  period  of  expul- 
sion to  the  condenser.  The  curve  at  J  is  due  to  the  delay 
in  the  opening  of  the  admission  valve  to  the  low  pressure 
cylinder. 


170 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


Notwithstanding-  the  much  higher  pressure —  say  1,400 
to  1,500  pounds  to  the  inch — at  which  carbonic  acid  machines 
are  worked,  and  although  air  is  now  compressed  to  thou- 
sands of  pounds  pressure  every  day  (for  torpedo  work,  and 
so  on),  the  author  has  not  yet  met  with  an  example  of  a  com- 


D  I  A  G  RAMS 
From     ANTARCTIC    Compressor 

Taken   cuith  the    same  SPRIHG 
For    both    Hi^h     and     Loco    Pressure    Cylinders . 

The    narrow     space    between   the    tcuo   diagram* 

•from 

E.  to    F.   shotus    the    slight    extra    pressure    on    small    PISTON 
due    to   the  SPRINGS   on    the    VALVES . 


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FlG.  115.        INDICATOR    CARDS    FROM    AMMONIA    COMPRESSOR. 


pound  carbonic  acid  machine.  This  is  probably  because 
owing*  to  the  high  back  pressure  the  ratio  of  compression  in 
such  machines  is  less  than  with  ammonia  compressors,  but 
there  certainly  seems  no  reason  why  they  should  not  be  used, 
if  only  to  save  the  trouble  and  loss  occasioned  by  leakage  at 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


171 


172 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


the  piston  rod  packing-  which  has  to  stand  the  full  forward 
pressure. 

Fig-.  116  shows,  by  contrast  with  Fig's.  98  and  99,  the 
great  advantag-es  possessed  by  compound  compressors  in 
securing-  equable  turning-  moments,  particularly  when  they 
are  belt  driven.  The  upper  diagrams  on  the  Fig-.  116  are 
identically  the  same  as  those  shown  in  Fig-.  115;  but  cor- 
rected for  relative  areas  for  the  pistons,  so  as  to  show  rela- 
tive absolute  pressures  on  the  whole  piston's  areas,  instead 
of  pressures  per  square  inch.  To  prevent  the  confusion  of 
a  great  number  of  small  overlapping-  lines,  the  graphic  con- 
struction is  g-iven  for  four  positions  only  of  the  connecting 


FlG.  117. — TURNING    MOMENTS  WITH  TWO    COMPOUND  COMPRESSORS. 

rod,  which  is  made  two-and-a-half  times  the  leng-th  of  the 
stroke.  By  following-  the  several  parallelograms  of  force,  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  heig-ht  of  the  ordinate  representing"  the 
pressure  on  the  piston,  is  first  resolved  into  the  horizontal 
pressure  on  the  compressor  guide,  and  the  force  acting-  in 
the  direction  of  the  center  line  of  the  connecting-  rod.  This 
force  acting-  on  the  connecting-  rod,  is  then  resolved  into 
radial  thrust  or  pressure  on  the  crank  pin  and  shaft,  and  the 
tang-ential  force  acting-  on  the  crank  pin.  The  radial  ordi- 
nates  set  up  outside  the  circle  are  the  same  leng-th  as  those 
on  the  tang-ents.  The  force  or  pull  of  the  belt  which  directly 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  173 

corresponds  with  the  power  represented  in  the  cylinder  dia- 
grams is,  therefore,  shown  in  all  positions  of  the  crank  or 
pistons  by  the  curved  outer  line  joining-  the  radial  ordi- 
nates,  and  its  distance  from  the  crank  pin  circle.  This  illus- 
tration applies  specially  to  the  machine  shown  by  Fig-.  100. 
When  two  compound  compressors  are  coupled  with  their 
cranks,  at  right  angles,  the  resulting-  turning-  moments  —  as 
shown  by  Fig-.  117  —  are  so  uniform,  that  it  is  evident  no  fly- 
wheel whatever  would  be  required  if  there  was  any  margin 
of  belt  and  pulley  power.  This  diagram  applies  particularly 
to  compound  compressors  of  the  g-eneral  type  shown  by  Fig-. 
101,  modifications  of  which  are  also  made  by  the  Linde  and 
Haslam  companies. 


174  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

ON   THE   LAWS    RELATING   TO   THE   EXPANSION 
AND  COMPRESSION  OF  GASES. 

The  acquirement  of  a  thorough  familiarity  with  the  laws 
which  govern  the  compression  and  expansion  of  gases,  can 
hardly  present  any  difficulty,  at  the  present  day,  to  the  col- 
lege trained  youth  or  university  student.  The  education  of 
such  persons  should  put  them  in  touch  with  mathematical 
text  books,  which  now  make  more  or  less  reference  to  that 
branch  of  knowledge,  and  whole  volumes  are  to  be  found, 
which  have  been  written  for  their  instruction  in  thermodyna- 
mic  lore.  The  average  refrigeration  engineer,  however,  is, 
for  many  reasons,  not  always  able  to  follow  the  intricate 
formulae  and  equations  with  which  such  works  abound. 
This  chapter  therefore  has  been  written  by  a  practical  man 
(who  knows  more  of  the  drawing  office,  machine  shop  and 
factory,  than  he  does  of  the  college  class  room),  as  an  attempt 
to  present  to  other  practical  men  like  himself,  some  informa- 
tion connected  with  the  laws  of  gases,  in  a  more  simple  form. 
It  is  hoped  that  this  will  not  only  assist  such  persons  to 
investigate  the  operation  of  a  compressor,  but  will  also 
enable  them  to  construct  theoretical  diagrams  of  the  work 
that  should  be  performed  by  its  piston,  so  that  they  may 
compare  them  with  the  actual  results,  as  given  by  the 
indicator. 

If  before  entering  upon  this  subject  it  is  asked:  What 
is  meant  by  a  gas?  The  reply  is:  The  most  distinguishing 
characteristic  of  any  gas  is  its  elasticity,  or  its  capacity  for 
infinite  expansion.  Not  many  years  since  there  were  many 
gases  called  permanent,  which  were  supposed  to  admit  also 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  175 

of  practically  indefinite  compression;  but,  although  they  are 
now  easily  liquefied  by  pressure,  when  cooled  below  their 
critical  temperatures,  no  practical  limit  yet  exists  to  their 
expansion.  It  is  found  that  as  the  pressure  on  any  gas  is 
diminished,  so  its  volume  increases,  and  that,  before  all  the 
pressure  could  be  removed,  the  volume  would  become  so 
great,  that  no  vessel  could  be  found  large  enough  to  con- 
tain it.* 

As  a  consequent  result,  when  the  temperature  of  any  gas 
is  increased,  either  the  pressure  or  the  volume,  or  both 
pressure  and  volume,  will  increase  also,  and  these  opera- 
tions follow  more  or  less  closely  certain  laws,  which  are  gen- 
erally known  as  the  laws  of  gases. 

Our  knowledge  of  these  laws  is  based  on  the  researches 
of  the  past  two  hundred  years,  and  the  greatest  advances,  or 
those  which  have  led  to  their  comprehension  on  mechanical, 
as  distinguished  from  mathematical  grounds,  have  been 
made  during  the  present  century. 

The  establishment  of  the  mechanical  equivalent  of  heat 
by  Joule  (under  which  772  foot-pounds  are  accepted  as  the 
equivalent  of  a  thermal  unit),  has  enabled  the  deductions 
from  the  earlier  discoveries  to  be  corroborated  by  a  sepa- 
rate process  of  investigation. 

BOYLE'S  LAW. 

The  first  law  to  be  discovered  and  given  to  the  world  in 
connection  with  gases,  is  known  indifferently  as  "Boyle's" 
law,  or  "Mariotte's"  law.  It  was  published  by  Robert 
Boyle  in  1662,  and  Mariotte  fourteen  years  later,  in  1675,  set 
it  forth  carefully  verified  in  his  treatise  "De  la  Nature  de 
1'Air."  As  French  and  other  continental  writers  generallv 
give  the  credit  to  Mariotte,  English  speaking  people  only  do 
justice  to  the  original  discoverer,  when  they  know  it  as 
Boyle's  law. 

Under  this  law,  writh  any  mass  of  gas  at  constant  tem- 
perature, the  product  of  its  volume  and  pressure  is  a  con- 
stant. Put  in  other  words,  in  whatever  proportion  the  pres- 

*This  may  be  better  realized  perhaps,  if  it  is  borne  in  mind,  that 
the  atmosphere,  owing- to  this  expansive  property,  extends  hundreds  of 
miles  out  into  space,  from  the  surface  of  the  earth. 


176  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

sure  of  a  gas  is  to  be  increased,  in  just  such  proportion  must 
its  volume  be  diminished,  or  vice  versa,  the  temperature 
in  both  cases  remaining-  constant. 

CHARLES'  LAW. 

The  second  law  is  called  the  law  of  Charles,  after  M. 
Charles,  who  was  prof essor  of  physics  at  Paris,  and  who  died 
in  1823.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  discoverer,  al- 
though particulars  of  it  were  published  by  Dalton  in  1801, 
and  by  Gay-Lussac  in  1802. 

Under  this  law,  with  a  unit  mass  of  gas  under  constant 
pressure,  the  volume  increases  from  the  freezing  to  the  boil- 
ing temperature  of  water,  directly  as  the  temperature  in- 
creases. 

It  has  been  found  by  careful  experiment  that  air  under 
constant  pressure  increases  in  volume,  as  it  is  raised  in  tem- 
perature from  the  freezing  to  the  boiling  points  of  water,  in 
the  ratio  of  1:1. 3665  ;  or  in  other  words,  that  30  cubic  inches 
or  feet  will  increase  to  about  41  inches  or  feet,  with  such  an 
accession  of  temperature. 

It  follows  from  this  that  if  Charles'  law  is  a  correct  one, 
within  the  limited  range  of  his  experiments,  and  Boyle's  law 
is  good  for  all  temperatures,  then  Charles'  law  must  also  be 
true  for  other  temperatures  and  pressures.  Because,  if— 

Volume  is  denoted  by  V\ 

Pressure  by  Pt 

Temperature  by  7] 

Then  Boyle's  law  says  V  P  is  constant  when  T  is  constant; 
but  Charles  says  when  P  is  constant,  and  V  increases  from  1 
to  1.3665,  then  T  rises  180°;  therefore  V  P  is  increased  at 
that  particular  pressure.  But  Boyle's  V  P  does  not  depend 
on  any  particular  pressure,  and  is  true  for  all  pressures. 
Hence,  whatever  the  pressure  of  a  gas  may  be,  the  product 
of  the  volume  and  the  pressure,  that  is  V  P,  will  be  in- 
creased in  the  proportion  from  1  to  1.3665,  by  an  increase  of 
180°  Fahrenheit  starting  from  the  freezing  point  of  water. 

Experiments  have  been  carried  out  with  a  great  number 
of  gases,  and  their  expansion  has  been  measured  through  the 
180  degrees  from  the  freezing  to  the  boiling  point,  with  the 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  177 

result,  that  the  maximum  variation  is  found  to  range  between 
1  to  1.367  with  air,  and  1  to  1.390  with  sulphurous  acid.  As 
a  result  of  the  researches  of  MM.  Regnaultand  Rudberg,  the 
ratio  of  expansion  for  the  average  gas,  when  raised  from  the 
freezing  to  the  boiling  point  of  water,  may  be  taken  as  from 
1  to  1.365.  That  is  the  volume  increases  0.366,  or  36.5  per 
cent,  for  an  increase  of  temperature  of  100°  Centigrade,  or 
180°  Fahrenheit;  and,  as  the  expansion  or  contraction  is  uni- 
form with  each  degree,  throughout  the  whole  180  degrees, 
then  it  is  evident  that  the  expansion  for  one  degree  will  be 

^  which  is  the  same  as  ^  .,,  '. 

This  means  that  any  volume  of  air  at  32°,  will  expand  or 
contract  through  ^V.*  part  of  its  volume,  for  every  Fahren- 
heit degree  that  its  temperature  is  increased  or  reduced,  if 
under  uniform  pressure  throughout.  Experimentally,  this 
has  been  verified  up  to  700°  above,  and  the  law  still  been 
found  to  be  true.  Inferentially  then  it  is  assumed  that  air 
would  necessarily  contract  in  volume  in  the  same  way  with 
a  corresponding  reduction  of  temperature,  until  arriving  at 
493.2°  below  the  freezing  point,  or  461.2°  below  Fahrenheit 
zero,  where  it  would  be  in  a  state  of  collapse  without  any 
remaining  elasticity.  This  temperature  of — 461.2°  is  there- 
fore called  the  absolute  zero  of  temperature,  and  Fahrenheit 
zero  is  461.2°  of  absolute  temperature. 

It  will  be  understood  from  this  that  in  order  to  double 
the  volume  of  a  given  weight  of  air  at  0°  by  the  thermo- 
meter, it  would  have  to  be  heated  to  461°;  and  in  order  to 
treble  its  volume,  to  raise  its  temperature  to  922°,  and  so  on. 

It  must  not  however  be  inferred  also,  that  these  condi- 
tions apply  absolutely  and  exactly  to  all  gases,  and  under  all 
conditions.  Up  to  pressures  as  high  as  say  100  atmos- 
pheres, they  appear  to  apply  to  the  more  permanent  gases, 
such  as  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  but  not  to  the  gases  most 
used  in  refrigerating  machines,  such  as  ammonia,  sulphur- 
ous acid,  and  carbonic  acid;  these  are  proved  to  be  sensibly 
more  compressible  than  air. 

Carbonic  acid  under  five  atmospheres  does  not  occupy 
more  than  97  per  cent  of  the  volume  which  air  would  do 
under  the  same  pressure,  and  under  forty  atmospheres, 

(12) 


178 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


near  the  condensing-  point,  only  74  per  cent,  or  less  than 
three-quarters  of  the  volume  it  should  do  on  the  basis  given 
above. 

Tables  of  the  progressive  pressures  required  to  com- 
press different  g-ases  have  been  published,  one  of  which 
follows: 

COMPRESSION    OF    GASES  UNDER  A  CONSTANT   TEMPERATURE. 
(NOTE. — A  meter  of  mercury  equals  19.34  pounds  per  square  inch.) 


PRESSURES  IN  METERS  OF  MERCURY. 

Ratio  of  the 

original  to 
the  reduced 
volume. 

Air. 
Meters. 

Nitrogen. 
Meters. 

C02 
Meters. 

Hydrogen. 
Meters. 

1 

1.000 

1.000 

1.000 

1.000 

2 

1.998 

1.997 

1.983 

2.000 

4 

3.987 

3.992 

3.897 

4.007 

6 

5.970 

5.980 

5.743 

6.018 

8 

7.946 

7.964 

7.519 

8.034 

10 

9.916 

9.944 

9.226 

10.056 

12 

11.882 

11.919 

10.863 

12.084 

14 

13.844 

13.891 

12.430 

14.119 

16 

15.804 

15.860 

13.926 

16.162 

18 

17.763 

17.825 

15.351 

18.211 

20 

19.720 

19.789 

16.705 

20.269 

For  the  purpose  of  the  practical  calculations  that  are 
required  in  connection  with  every-day  refrig-eration,  it  should 
be  sufficiently  accurate  to  estimate  on  the  assumption  that 
the  different  substances  which  are  used  for  the  medium  will 
behave  as  if  they  were  perfect  g~ases. 

We  can  omit  the  decimal  for  convenience  in  ordinary 
calculations,  and  admit  that  a  gas  will  increase  4^3-  part  of 
its  volume  at  the  freezing-  point,  or  TJT  part  of  its  volume  at 
zero,  for  each  degree  increase  of  temperature.  If  then  we 
have  to  deal  with  a  given  weig-ht  of  g-as  at  ordinary  atmos- 
pheric temperature,  say  65°,  and  desire  to  double  its  vol- 
ume, it  will  not  be  sufficient  to  increase  its  temperature  by 
65°,  and  raise  it  to  130°.  Such  an  addition  is  altogether  beside 
the  mark — the  actual  operation  is  as  under: 

In  order  to  double  65°,  first  add  461°,  which  gives  526° 
absolute;  and  this  multiplied  by  2,  equals  1,052°,  absolute 
temperature.  Deducting-  461°  gives  591°,  as  the  thermome- 
ter temperature  of  the  gas  when  its  volume  is  doubled. 
Ag-ain  65C+461C  =  526X3  equals  1,578°  absolute;  deduct  461C, 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  179 

gives  1,117°,  as  the  Fahrenheit  temperature,  when  its  volume 
is  trebled. 

Therefore  any  current  of  air  at  65°,  such  as  is  ordinarily 
supplied  to  the  furnace  of  a  steam  boiler  (where  the  pres- 
sure is  practically  constant),  will  occupy  double  volume  at 
591°,  and  treble  volume  at  1,117°  of  temperature. 

Summing-  up  all  these  several  laws  into  a  few  brief  sen- 
tences, it  is  found  with  gases:  — 

A.  The  pressure  varies  inversely  as  the  volume  when 
the  temperature  is  constant  (Boyle). 

B.  The  pressure  varies  directly  as  the  absolute  tem- 
perature when  the  volume  is  constant  (Charles). 

C.  The  volume   varies  as   the    absolute    temperature 
when  the  pressure  is  constant. 

D.  The  product  of  the  pressure  and  volume  is  propor- 
tional to  the  absolute  temperature. 

The  pressure  in  all  these  cases  is  absolute  pressure  — 
measured  from  a  vacuum;  so  that  the  atmospheric  pressure 
must  be  added  to  that  shown  by  an  ordinary  gauge,  before 
making-  calculations,  and  the  same  must  be  deducted  from 
calculated  results,  to  g-ive  the  gauge  pressure. 

The  following  simple  rules  based  on  the  foregoing  laws 
may  be  passed  over  by  the  advanced  student: 

1.  With  a  known  volume  of  a  gas  at  any  temperature 
(the  pressure  being  constant),  to  find  the  volume  at  any 
other  temperature.  The  sum  is  a  simple  one  of  proportion, 
V1,  P1,  and  Tl,  as  before,  standing  for  the  volume,  pressure 
and  temperature  unknown  or  required. 

V  :    V1    ::    7^+461   :   7^+461,  and  therefore— 


T  +  461 

2.  With  a  known  volume  at  a  given  pressure  and  con- 
stant temperature,  to  find  the  volume  at  any  other  pressure, 
then— 

F1  :  V:  :  P  :  P1  or  F1  =  V-~ 

3.  With  a  known  volume,  at  a  given  pressure  and  tem- 
perature, to  find  the  volume  at  any  other  pressure  and  tern- 


180  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

perature.  Here  the  operation  is  one  of  double  or  compound 
proportion,  the  result  being*  in  the  compound  ratio  of  the 
absolute  temperature  direct,  and  the  pressure  inversely; 
thus  — 

V:  V1  ::  Pl  (T+461)  :  P(7'1+461),  or 

_       P  CP+461) 
/".(7H-461) 

4.  With  a  known  volume  at  a  given  pressure  and  tem- 
perature, to  find  the  pressure  at  any  volume  and  tempera- 
ture— 

P-.P-.:  F1  (F+461)  :  F(7^  +  461) 

F  (2"* +461) 

F'(7'+461) 

If  the  above  equations  are  correct,  and  the  volume  of 
one  pound  of  any  particular  gas  at  a  given  temperature  and 
pressure  is  known,  then  it  is  evidently  possible  to  find  a 
co-efficient  for  such  gas,  which  will  save  a  great  deal  of 
trouble  in  making  calculations  connected  with  it.  For 
instance,  take  air : 

The  volume  of  one  pound  of  air  at  atmospheric  density, 
or  14.7  pounds  pressure  to  the  square  inch,  and  at  32°,  is 
12.387  cubic  feet. 

The  absolute  temperature  is  32°  +  461°  =  493°,  and 
hence — 

12.387  X  14.7  1 

=  .36935     or 


493  2.7074 

This  fraction,  0.36935,  is  therefore  a  constant,  which, 
when  multiplied  by  the  weight  in  pounds,  and  temperature 
of  the  gas  in  degrees  absolute,  and  divided  by  the  pressure 
in  pounds  per  square  inch,  will  give  the  volume  in  cubic  feet; 
or  conversely,  the  pressure  at  any  volume  in  cubic  feet,  of 
one  pound  of  air.  Thus  — 


The  following  table  gives  the  value  of  this  co-efficient  (a) 
for  six  different  'gases,  and  any  one  of  these  values,  multi- 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  181 

plied  by  144,  gives  the  co-efficient  (a)  for  pounds  per  square 
foot: 

VOLUME,    PRESSURE   AND   TEMPERATURE   OF   GASES. 

Constants  (a]  for  the  equation  V  P  =  a  (7^-461). 


Name  of  ga.s. 

Volume  of  one  pound 
of  gas  at  32°  F.  under 
one  atmosphere. 

Value   of    the    co- 
efficient (a). 

Sulphuric  ether  

4.79 

0.1424  or  t  £r5 

Sulphurous  acid   

5.513 

0  .  1643  or  ff  o'ss 

Carbonic  acid 

8  101 

0  245  or     -1-  » 

Air         

-  12.387 

\j  ,&-r*j  \ji  4.  j  39g 
0  .  3693  or  *  4«^ 

Ammonia 

21  017 

0  6266  or     1 

Gaseous  steam 

19  913 

0  5937  or    A 

The  volume  of  one  pound  of,  say,  ammoniacalg-as,  within 
ordinary  working-  temperatures  and  pressures,  is  found  as 
follows  by  the  use  of  this  co-efficient: — 

^H61 
"  1.596  P 

That  is,  take  the  weig-ht  of  ammonia  in  pounds,  multi- 
ply it  by  the  absolute  temperature,  and  divide  it  by  1.598 
times  the  absolute  pressure  per  square  inch,  to  give  you  the 
volume  in  cubic  feet. 

To  find  the  pressure  of  any  volume  of  one  pound  of  am- 
monia:— 

7H-461 
1.596  V 

To  find  the  density  or  weight  in  pounds  of  a  cubic  foot 
of  ammonia  at  a  given  temperature  and  pressure  :— 

1.596  P 
'  7H-461 

THE   SPECIFIC   HEAT    OF    GASES. 

4 

In  the  earlier  part  of  this  volume,  there  is  a  table  of  the 
specific  heats  of  a  number  of  solid  substances ;  these  in  all 
cases  may  be  taken  as  constant  quantities.  M.  Reg-nault  is 
the  authority  for  the  assumption  that  the  specific  heat  of  a 
given  volume  of  any  one  of  the  permanent  gases  is  also  prac- 
tically constant  for  all  temperatures  and  pressures,  inasmuch 
as  the  variation  through  360  degrees  is  not  more  than  0.2377. 
But  g-as  has  the  property,  which  solids  have  not,  of  altering- 
its  volume  considerably;  and  the  specific  heat  of  a  gas 


182  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

has  to  be  considered  from  two  separate  points,  not  only 
when  it  is  under  constant  volume,  but  also  when  it  is  under 
constant  pressure. 

The  capacity  for  heat  under  constant  pressure  is  much 
greater  than  under  constant  volume,  and  the  comprehension 
of  the  reason  for  these  two  separate  attributes  of  a  gas  will 
be  much  facilitated  by  the  following-  diagram,  Fig.  118. 

Here  we  have  a  cylinder  35.7  inches  diameter,  or  with 
an  area  of  1,001  inches,  and  a  piston  rod  equal  to  one  square 
inch  in  area,  so  that  the  effective  area  of  the  piston  is  equal 
to  1,000  square  inches. 

Now  if  one  pound  of  ammonia  is  introduced  below  the 
piston  at  a  temperature  of  32°,  or  493°  absolute,  and  a  vac- 
uum is  maintained  above  it,  while  the  weight  of  14,700 
pounds  (equal  to  the  atmospheric  pressure  of  14.7  pounds 
on  1,000  square  inches)  is  supported  from  it,  then  it  will 
be  found  that  the  volume  of  the  pound  of  gas  at  such  pres- 
sure and  temperature  is  equal  to  about  twenty-one  cubic  feet, 
or  36,288  cubic  inches,  and  that  the  piston  will  consequently 
stand  36.28  inches  up  from  the  bottom.  Of  course  this  is 
assuming  an  absolutely  frictionless  piston  and  piston  rod 
for  the  purpose  of  the  experiment. 

If  more  heat  is  now  allowed  to  pass  into  the  gas  until  its 
temperature  is  doubled,  that  is  raised  to  493°X2=986°  abso- 
lute, or  525°  by  the  thermometer,  and  at  the  same  time 
weights  are  gradually  added  in  such  a  way  as  to  maintain 
the  piston  continuously  in  the  same  (or  No.  1)  position,  then 
it  will  be  found  that  when  the  temperature  has  been  doubled 
the  pressure  has  doubled  also,  and  that  the  weights  that  can 
be  supported  in  such  original,  or  No.  1,  position  will  amount 
to  29,400  pounds.  If,  further,  the  temperature  is  trebled, 
then  the  piston  in  No.  1  position  will  support  44,100  pounds 
weight,  and  so  on. 

If  the  heat  that  is  required  to  be  communicated  to  the 
ammonia,  to  enable  it  to  carry  the  double  load,  and  to  raise 
its  temperature  493°,  is  measured,  it  will  be  found  to  amount 
to  192.8  thermal  units,  and  if  192.8  is  divided  by  493,  it  gives 
.3911  unit,  as  the  amount  of  heat  which  must  be  communi- 
cated to  the  gas  for  each  degree  rise  of  temperature. 
Therefore  .3911  of  a  unit  is  said  to  be  the  specific  heat  of 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


183 


PRESSURE. 


FlG.  118. —  DIAGRAM  TO 
ILLUSTRATE  THE  EX- 
PANSION OF  GASES. 


ONE 

ATMOSPMES 
PRESSURE 

EQUAL.       TO 

I     147OO    IBS, 


184  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

ammoniacal  gas  at  constant  volume.  Similarly  a  further 
accession  of  192.8  thermal  units  is  again  required  to  be 
added,  when  44,100  pounds  is  supported  in  the  first  position 
with  the  same  volume  of  gas,  but  with  its  pressure  trebled. 

Let  it  be  assumed  that  the  cylinder  is  an  absolute  non- 
conductor, and  that  all  this  additional  heat  communicated  is 
retained,  the  first  impression  of  a  student  of  the  subject 
would  be  that  the  same  amount  of  heat  as  is  necessary  to 
double  the  pressure  of  the  gas  and  carry  double  the  original 
weight,  would  raise  the  original  weight  alone  to  the  second 
position;  and  further,  that  trebling  the  heat  of  the  gas 
would  treble  its  volume,  and  enable  it  to  raise  the  14,700 
pounds  to  the  third  position.  The  vacuum,  of  course,  being 
understood  to  be  maintained  above  the  piston  throughout 
the  whole  experiment.  Such  is  not  the  case  however. 

If  now  a  second  experiment  is  attempted,  and  when 
the  piston  is  in  the  first  position  supporting  29,400  pounds, 
the  additional  weights  are  taken  off  (leaving  only  the  original 
14,700  pounds  suspended),  in  the  expectation  that  the  gas  at 
initial  volume,  and  double  its  initial  pressure  and  tempera- 
ture, will  expand  to  double  its  original  volume  and  its  initial 
pressure,  it  will  be  found  that  although  the  piston  will  cer- 
tainly rise  and  lift  the  load  as  the  weights  are  reduced  to 
14,700  pounds,  it  will  stop  a  long  way  short  of  the  double 
height  indicated  by  the  piston  in  position  No.  2.  To  con- 
tinue the  experiment  until  the  piston  is  raised  to  the  double 
height  it  will  be  necessary  to  communicate  additional  heat 
to  the  gas,  to  the  amount  of  493  X  .1169  unit,  which  =  57.63 
thermal  units.  With  such  an  amount  of  additional  heat,  the 
piston  will  raise  the  original  weight  the  whole  of  the  three 
feet  to  the  second  position,  by  doubling  the  volume  of  the  gas 
beneath  it.  This  additional  heat,  that  is  .1169  B.  T.  U.  per 
pound  of  gas,  is  called  the  latent  heat  of  expansion.  When 
that  amount  of  heat  is  added  to  the  .3911  unit  which  repre- 
sents specific  heat  at  constant  volume,  it  gives  a  total  of 
.5080  thermal  unit,  or  the  specific  heat  of  ammonia  gas  at 
constant  pressure. 

In  carrying  out  the  first  part  of  the  experiments  it  will 
be  found  that  as  the  weights  are  taken  off,  the  temperature 
of  the  gas  will  fall  as  the  piston  rises,  although  the  cylinder 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  185 

is  non-conducting;  and  this  fall  of  temperature  represents  a 
loss  of  thermal  units  exactly  equivalent  to  the  amount  of 
mechanical  work  done  in  lifting-  the  load,  as  it  is  reduced  in 
weight. 

The  reason  why  more  thermal  units  must  be  imparted  to 
the  gas  in  the  second  operation  (although  in  both  cases  only 
one  and  the  same  pound  of  it  is  raised  in  sensible  tempera- 
ture, by  exactly  the  same  number  of  degrees)  is  easily  com- 
prehended in  the  light  of  the  mechanical  equivalent  of  heat; 
because  in  the  second  case  there  is  external  work  performed 
in  raising  the  14,700  pounds  of  weight  over  three  feet.  It 
was  from  the  consideration  of  these  two  different  aspects  of 
specific  heat,  in  experimenting  with  gases,  that  Dr.  Mayer 
is  said  to  have  first  approximately  deduced  the  value  of  the 
mechanical  equivalent  of  heat,  which  was  afterward  more 
accurately  determined  by  Joule,  about  the  year  1842. 

If  we  multiply  14,700  pounds  by  3.0264  feet,  the  length  of 
stroke  of  the  piston,  we  obtain  44,488  foot-pounds  as  the 
amount  of  work  done,  and  if  this  is  divided  by  493°,  then 
*  j*|8  =90.3.  This  number  is  the  latent  heat  of  expansion  for 
ammonia,  expressed  in  foot-pounds;  and  when  it  is  added  to 
301.9,  which  is  the  specific  heat  of  ammonia  in  foot-pounds  at 
constant  volume,  it  gives  392.2  as  the  specific  heat  in  foot- 
pounds at  constant  pressure.  This  value,  it  will  be  recog- 
nized, is  simply  the  specific  heat  in  thermal  units,  viz., 0.5080, 
multiplied  by  the  mechanical  equivalent  772,  any  slight  dis- 
crepancies in  the  fraction  arising  from  the  omission  of  small 
decimals. 

To  Mayer  is  due  the  credit  that  he  arrived  by  abstract 
reasoning  at  results  very  close  to  those  which  Joule  after- 
ward confirmed  by  mechanical  experiments.  The  mechan- 
ical equivalent  of  heat  is  now  generally  termed  a  "Joule, "and 
designated  by  the  letter  J.,  as  the  equivalent  of  772  foot- 
pounds, or  1  B.  T.  U. 

The  latent  heat  of  expansion  expressed  in  foot-pounds, 
for  any  gas,  may  very  easily  be  found  directly,  when  we 
know  the  volume  of  a  given  weight  of  the  same  at  any  tem- 
perature, or  have  the  constants  or  co-efficients,  such  as  is 
given  in  a  table  on  page  181. 

For  instance,  take  a  pound  of  air  at  32C  having  a  volume 


186  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

of  .12,387  cubic  feet.  It  is  evident  that  if  such  air  was  con- 
tained in  a  flexible  bag-,  and  the  volume  of  the  same  was 
doubled  by  doubling-  the  absolute  temperature,  then  the 
whole  weig-ht  of  the  atmosphere  on  one  square  foot  would 
have  to  be  lifted  12-387  feet.  The  atmospheric  pressure  of 
14.7  pounds  X  144  gives  2,116.8  pounds  as  the  pressure  per 
square  foot;  and  this  multiplied  by  12.387  gives  26,220.8  foot- 
pounds, as  the  amount  of  work  involved  in  the  operation. 
Then  26,220  divided  by  493°  (which  represents  the  number  of 
degrees  the  temperature  has  to  be  raised)  gives  53.18  as  the 
latent  heat  of  expansion  for  air,  expressed  in  foot-pounds. 

The  specific  heat  of  air  expressed  in  foot-pounds  is, 
therefore— 

Foot-pounds. 

At  constant  pressure 183 . 45 

At  constant  volume 130 . 3 

Difference 53 . 15 

The  ratio  of  183.45  to  130.3  is  the  same  as  that  between 
.2777  and  .1688,  which  is  1.408  to  1. 

This  ratio  has  been  confirmed  by  experiments  con- 
ducted by  M.  Masson,  who  liberated  compressed  air,  and 
allowed  it  to  expand  back  to  its  original  temperature  and 
deduced  therefrom  the  ratio  of  1  to  1.41,  or  1  to  V  2. 

This  ratio  is  generally  represented  in  the  text  books  by 
the  sig-n  y  (Gamma,  one  of  the  letters  of  the  Greek  alpha- 
bet). The  accepted  value  of  y  for  air  is  1.401. 

ON    EXPANSION    AND    COMPRESSION. 

In  the  work  of  a  steam  engine — expanding  a  saturated 
vapor,  and  in  a  compressor,  such  as  the  Linde  machine — com- 
pressing what  its  makers  term  "humid"  gas,  any  change  of 
temperature  which  would  be  due  either  to  alteration  of 
volume  of,  or  to  the  work  performed  by  it,  or  upon  it,  is  modi- 
fied by  the  liberation  or  absorption  of  heat,  that  would  not 
affect  the  operation  with  a  perfect  gas.  In  the  steam  engine, 
this  arises  from  the  setting  free  or  liberation  of  heat  from 
the  entrained  or  suspended  liquid,  on  the  reduction  of  pres- 
sure causing  re-evaporation  during  expansion,  and  in  the 
compressor,  by  the  absorption  of  the  heat  taken  up  to  vapor- 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


187 


ize  the  liquid  held  in  the  gas,  which  vaporization  results 
from  the  increase  of  pressure  and  temperature. 

In  such  cases,  the  compression  and  expansion  appear 
more  or  less  closely  to  follow  Boyle's  law,  and  in  actual  prac- 
tice with  the  steam  engine,  it  is  generally  considered  to  do 
so.  Under  that  law,  as  has  been  shown,  V P  is  a  constant; 
the  curve  which  represents  the  variation  of  the  pressure 
throughout  the  stroke  of  the  piston,  is  in  such  case  a  hyper- 
bola, and  the  operation  is  termed  "  isothermal  "  compression 
or  expansion. 

To  illustrate  this  graphically  let  it  be  assumed  that  we 
have  gas  at  two  atmospheres  of  pressure,  or  fifteen  pounds 


ABSOLUTE    PRESSURES. 
180  Ibs. 


50" 
B 


40" 
C 


jo"  20'      15        IO" 

D  E         P         G 

INCHES   PROM    THE    END    OF   THE  STROKE. 
OR   RELATIVE    VOLUMES. 


OR  VACUUM  . 


FlG.   119. — DIAGRAM    OF   ISOTHERMAL    COMPRESSION   AND 
EXPANSION    OK   A   GAS. 

by  the  gauge  (the  atmospheric  pressure  being  taken  at 
fifteen  pounds,  for  the  sake  of  round  numbers),  let  the  ratio 
of  compression  be  6  to  1,  and  instead  of  the  cylinder  being 
absolutely  non-conducting  as  was  assumed  with  Fig.  118,  let 
it  be  a  perfect  conductor,  and  through  external  influences 
let  the  gas  be  maintained  at  a  uniform  temperature  through- 
out the  whole  stroke  of  the  piston. 

Let  the  base  line  of  Fig.  119  represent  the  zero  of  pres- 
sure or  a  vacuum,  and  its  length,  A  H,  sixty  inches;  this  cor- 
responding with  the  stroke  of  the  piston,  in  a  compressor  or 
engine  working  with  an  expansion  or  compression  of  6:1. 
It  is  of  course  apparent  that  if  the  diagram  is  to  represent 


188  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

expansion  in  an  engine,  that  the  stroke  of  the  piston  would 
be  from  right  to  left,  the  cylinder  being-  filled  at  initial  pres- 
sure for  ten  inches  out  of  the  full  sixty  inches  before  expan- 
sion begins,  and  then  expanding-  through  fifty  inches  to  the 
end  of  the  stroke. 

As  the  purpose  at  present  is  to  consider  the  action  of  a 
compressor,  the  journey  must  be  made  from  the  left  to  the 
rig-ht.  With  the  piston  commencing-  its  stroke  at  a,  the 
initial  volume,  or  full  cylinder,  is  represented  by  unit  area  of 
piston  multiplied  by  sixty  inches,  or  V=6Q.  The  initial  pres- 
sure is  thirty  pounds,  or  P=30.  Then  P  V  equals  1,800, 
which  is  graphically  illustrated  by  the  lower  parallelogram, 
sixty  inches  long-  multiplied  by  thirty  pounds  hig-h.  When 
the  piston  has  moved  along-  the  one-sixth  of  its  stroke  the 
volume  of  the  cylinder  will  be  reduced  from  sixty  to  fifty, 
and  if-jj-  g-ives  thirty-six  as  the  value  of  P  for  such  volume. 
At  forty  inches,  /^becomes  forty-five;  at  thirty  inches,  or  half 
stroke,  /^has  doubled  its  original  value,  and  becomes  sixty. 
Similarly,  at  e  and  f,  P  rises  to  ninety  and  120,  respectively; 
while  at  ten  inches  from  the  end,  when  the  gas  is  confined 
to  one-sixth  of  its  original  volume,  /^has  risen  to  180  pounds, 
or  six  times  its  initial  pressure. 

It  is  evident  that  the  several  parallelograms  represent- 
ing P  V  in  all  these  different  positions  of  the  piston,  are  all 
of  equal  area;  and  as  this  corresponds  with  the  construction 
of  the  hyperbola,  a  line  which  joins  the  points  a  b  g  will  be  a 
hyperbolic  curve. 

When  a  diagram  of  this  character  has  been  obtained 
directly  from  a  cylinder  by  means  of  an  indicator,  the  line 
A  H  is  usually  divided  into  a  number  of  equal  parts,  say  ten 
or  more,  by  a  set  of  parallel  dividing  rulers,  and  ten  ordinates 
or  heights  are  taken  in  the  centers  of  each  of  those  divisions. 
The  mean  height  or  mean  pressure  may  then  be  ascertained 
by  adding  these  ten  values  together,  and  dividing  them  by 
ten.  When,  however,  there  are  no  means  of  taking  a  diagram 
by  an  instrument,  but  the  point  of  cut-off,  and  the  initial 
and  terminal  pressures  are  known,  then  the  mean  pressure 
may  be  ascertained  (without  requiring  special  mathematical 
knowledge,  or  the  construction  of  a  diagram)  by  the  use  of 
hyperbolic  logarithms  as  given  in  the  table  on  opposite  page. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION, 


189 


Let/?  represent   the  ratio  of  compression  and  expan- 
sion. 

H  the  hyperbolic  logarithm  of  R. 
P  the  mean  pressure. 

C  the  initial  pressure  before  compression. 
E  the  initial  pressure  before  expansion. 

Then  for  compression  P=    Cx(l+/7) 

j? 
For  expansion  P=       X  (1  -f  H) 

K 

The  following-  table  gives  hyperbolic  logarithms  for  a 
number  of  different  ratios  of  compression,  but  it  must  be 
understood  that  they  only  apply  to  the  compression  of  any 
gas  under  the  special  circumstances  of  uniform  temperature 
throughout  the  stroke  with  no  allowance  for  clearance. 

HYPERBOLIC     LOGARITHMS      FOR     CALCULATING     EXPANSION 
AND     COMPRESSION     OF    GASES. 


Portion  of  the 

Portion  of  the 

stroke  dur-         Ratio 
ing  which  no  of  compres- 
expansion  of          si  on 
the  gas  takes 

Hyperbolic1 
logarithm. 

stroke  dur- 
ing- which  no 
expansion  of 
the  g-as  takes 

Ratio 
of  compres- 
sion. 

Hyperbolic 
logarithm  . 

place. 

place. 

I9d                    1.11 

.104 

ft 

3.33 

1.203 

•  ft 

1.14 
1.25 

.131 

.223 

I 

4.0 

5.0 

1.386 
1.609 

1 

1.33 

.285 

6.0 

1.7917 

/o 

1.42 

.351 

i 

7.0 

1.9459 

i 

1.6 

.470 

i 

8.0 

2.079 

h 

1.66 

.507 

i 

9.0 

2.1972 

I 

2.0 
2.5 

.693 
.916 

ft 

h 

10.0 
12.0 

2.302 
2.489 

1 

2.66 

.978 

ADIABATIC    COMPRESSION    AND    EXPANSION. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  effect  which  the 
humidity  of  the  gas  has  in  its  effect  on  the  operation  of  com- 
pressing ammonia,  it  being  a  special  feature  of  some  com- 
pression plants.  It  must  not  however  be  understood  from 
this,  that  the  refrigerating  medium  does  more  than  approach 
to  a  perfect  gas,  without  actually  reaching  that  condition, 
even  in  those  plants  where  the  expansion  coils  of  the  refrig- 


190  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

erator  are  of  such  ample  surface  (in  proportion  to  the  weight 
of  ammonia  to  be  evaporated)  that  the  gas  as  supplied  to  the 
inlet  of  the  compressor  is  technically  "dry."  In  every-day 
practice,  the  line  of  the  diagram,  as  taken  by  an  indicator, 
from  so  called  dry  compressors,  will  not  follow  an  exact 
adiabatic  curve,  because  the  walls  of  the  cylinder  must  trans- 
mit some  of  the  heat  resulting-  from  the  compression,  and 
this  heat  will  be  carried  away  by  the  jacket  of  water  that 
nearly  always  surrounds  the  cylinders  of  dry  compressors. 
Every  unit  of  heat  thus  carried  away,  by  reducing-  the  pres- 
sure, of  course  reduces  the  amount  of  power  necessary  to 
work  the  compressor. 

Notwithstanding-  this,  if  the  engineer  in  charg-e  of  a  com- 
pressor can  set  up  the  true  adiabatic  line,  as  well  as  the 
isothermal  line  of  compression,  upon  the  actual  indicator 
cards  which  he  takes  from  his  cylinders,  he  will  get  then  a 
better  idea  of  the  real  work  which  his  machine  is  doing-,  and 
also  be  able  to  judg-e  whether  improvements  to  it  are  either 
desirable  or  possible.  A  well  fitted  compressor  should  not 
only  have  indicator  attachments  and  pressure  g-aug-es  con- 
nected as  closely  as  possible  to  the  inlet  and  outlet  branches, 
but  should  also  have  mercury  wells  for  the  insertion  of  ther- 
mometers close  to  the  same  connections.  Direct  readings 
of  the  gauges  will  give  the  initial  and  final  pressures,  /^and 
P-\-  P1,  from  which  7?,  the  ratio  of  compression,  can  be 
deduced,  and  the  relation  of  initial  and  final  volume  T^and 
V1.  The  thermometers  will  give  the  initial  and  final  tem- 
peratures, which  by  the  addition  of  461°  to  each,  gives  T and 
T+  Tl. 

When  instead  of  isothermal,  it  is  adiabatic  compression 
which  takes  place,  then  instead  of  P  V  being  constant,  it  is 
(P  X  F)r,  or  P  multiplied  by  V  raised  to  such  power 
(Gamma)  as  is  appropriate  to  the  special  gas  under  consider- 
ation, which  is  constant.  These  values  are  given  in  one  of 
the  columns  of  the  table  on  the  opposite  page,  and  it  is 
possible  to  prove,  in  accordance  writh  the  principles  of 
logarithms,  that  the  numeric  ratio  which  the  specific  heat  of 
a  gas  at  constant  pressure  bears  to  the  specific  heat  of  such 
gas  at  constant  volume  (and  which  in  the  case  of  air  is  1.408) 
corresponds  with  the  index  of  the  power  to  which  PxV 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


191 


must  be  raised  to  give  the  true  results  of  adiabatic  compres- 

(V  \r 
-pi  I 

In  the  case  of  ammonia,  instead  of  the  pressure  under 
compression  or  expansion  varying  inversely  as   the  volume, 


PROPERTIES  OF  GASES  USED  FOR  ARTIFICIAL  REFRIGERATION. 


GASES. 
Temperature,  32°  F. 
Pressure,  1  Atmosphere,  or  14.7 
Pounds  Per  Square  Inch. 

Sulphuric  Ether. 

Sulphurous  Acid. 

Carbonic  Acid. 

c 

< 

Ammonia. 

Gaseous  Steam. 

1 

Cubic  feet  in  one  pound                 

4.97 

5.513 

8.101 

12.387 

21.017 

19.913 

2 

Pounds  in  one  cubic  foot 

0.209 

0.181 

0.123 

0.080 

0.047 

0.0502 

3 

Specific  gravity,  air  being1  1  

2.586 

2.247 

1.529 

1.000 

0.589 

0.622 

4 

Co-efficient  (a) 

0.1424 
or 

1 

0.1643 
or 
1 

0.2415 
or 
1 

0.3693 
or 
1 

0.6266 
or 

1 

0.5937 
or 
1 

V  P  -  a  (*  +  461)  

7.019 

6.089 

4.1399 

2.7074 

1.59 

1.684 

5 

Specific  heat  at  constant  pressure, 

In  Thermal  Units. 

0.4810 

0.1553 

0.2164 

0.2377 

0.5080 

0.4750 

6 

Specific  heat  at  constant  volume, 

s 

0.3411 

0.1246 

0.1714 

0.1688 

0.3911 

0.3700 

7 

Latent     heat    of     expansion     or 
A'—S  =  L  

0.1399 

0.0307 

0.0450 

0.0689 

0.1169 

0.1050 

8 

K      k 
Ratio  of  specific  heats,  —  or  —  or  K 

^       s 

1.41 

1.246 

1.262 

1.408 

1.298 

1.283 

9 

Specific  heat  at  constant  pressure, 

| 

i 

_= 

371.3 

119.89 

167.06 

183.504 

392.17 

366.7 

W  ' 

Specific  heat  at  constant  volume, 

263.3 

96.19 

132.32 

130.31 

301.92 

285.64 

11 

Latent    heat   of   expansion 
K  —  s  =  L, 

108.028 

23.7004 

34.74 

53.19 

90.25 

81.06 

it  varies  inversely  as  the  volume  raised  to  the  1.298  power. 
The  following-  table  gives  the  ratios  of  volumes  and  tem- 
peratures for  air  under  twenty-five  different  grades  of  com- 


192 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


pression,  and  has  columns  of  differences,  to  enable  interme- 
diate grades  to  be  dealt  with — it  is  taken  from  a  French  work: 

ADIABATIC  COMPRESSION    OR   EXPANSION    OF   AIR. 


INVKKSE  OF 

INVERSE  OF 

THESE 

THESE 

Ratio 
of 
Greater 
to 

Ratio  of 
Greater  to  Less 
Absolute 
Temperatures. 

RATIOS. 

Ratio  of 
Greater  to  Less 
Volumes. 

RATIOS. 

Ratio  of 
Less  to  Greater 

Ratio  of 
Less  to  Greater 

Less 
Pressures 

Absolute 
Temperatures. 

Volumes. 

Num- 

Dif- 

Num- 

Dif- 

Num- 

Dif- 

Num- 

Dif- 

bers. 

fer. 

bers. 

fer. 

bers. 

fer. 

bers. 

fer. 

1.2 

1.054 

48 

.948 

41 

1.138 

132 

.879 

91 

1.4 

1.102 

44 

.907 

34 

1.270 

126 

.788 

73 

1.6 

1.146 

40 

.873 

30 

1.396 

122 

.716 

57 

1.8 

1.186 

36 

.843 

25 

1.518 

118 

.659 

48 

2 

1.222 

35 

.818 

22 

1.636 

114 

.611 

40 

2.2 

1.257 

32 

.796 

20 

1.750 

112 

.571 

34 

2.4 

1.289 

30 

.776 

18 

1.862 

109 

.537 

30 

2.6 

1.319 

29 

.758 

16 

1.971 

106 

.507 

26 

2.8 

1.348 

27 

.742 

15 

2.077 

105 

.481 

23 

3 

1.375 

26 

.727 

13 

2.182 

102 

.458 

20 

3.2 

1.401 

25 

.714 

13 

2.284 

100 

.438 

19 

3.4 

1.436 

24 

.701 

11 

2.384 

99 

.419 

16 

3.6 

1.450 

23 

.690 

11 

2.483 

97 

.403 

15 

3.8 

1.473 

22 

.679 

10 

2.580 

96 

.388 

14 

4 

1.495 

21 

.669 

9 

2.676 

94 

.374 

13 

4.2 

1.516 

20 

.660 

9 

2.770 

93 

.361 

12 

4.4 

1.537 

20 

.651 

9 

2.863 

93 

.349 

11 

4.6 

1.559 

19 

.642 

7 

2.955 

91 

.338 

10 

4.8 

.576 

19 

.635 

8 

3.046 

89 

.328 

9 

5 

.595 

86 

.627 

32 

3.135 

434 

.319 

39 

6 

.691 

77 

.595 

26 

3.569 

412 

.280 

29 

7 

.758 

70 

.569 

22 

3.981 

396 

.251 

23 

8 

.828 

63 

.547 

18 

4.377 

382 

.228 

18 

9 

.891 

59 

.529 

16 

4.759 

370 

.210 

15 

10 

1.950 

.513 

5.129 

... 

.195 

•• 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

After  what  has  been  said  it  must  be  clear,  that  in  the 
compression  of  any  gas,  the  work  which  has  to  be  done  at 
every  successive  step  or  stage,  to  effect  such  compression, 
must  add  to  the  pressure,  which  would  result  from  the  sim- 
ple reduction  of  volume  under  Boyle's  law,  by  the  addition 
of  the  heat  units  which  are  equivalent  to  such  work.  That 
being  so,  the  next  stage  must  start  with  a  higher  pressure 
than  that  which  is  simply  due  to  P  V  divided  by  F1.  The 
pressure  at  the  end  of  each  separate  stage  is  dependent  upon 
the  work  which  is  necessary  to  overcome  the  ever  varying 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


193 


pressure  during-  such  stage,  and  the  equation  in  consequence 
involves  the  use  of  logarithms.  It  is  however  only  neces- 
sary to  make  the  steps  or  stages  of  the  compression  rela- 
tively small  to  be  enabled  to  arrive  at  the  adiabatic  result, 
with  a  little  more  labor,  by  simple  arithmetical  calculation 
alone. 

As  the  author  is  not  aware  that  the  method  has  ever  been 
suggested  before,  an  example  may  be  given,  in  which  some 
of  the  stages  will  be  worked  by  a  series  of  decreasing  incre- 
ments, and  others  by  a  system  of  trials;  the  proof  of  the  re- 
sult in  all  cases  will  be  that  the  pressure  arrived  at  is  directly 
as  the  intrinsic  energy  in  the  gas,  and  inversely  as  its  volume. 
So  far  as  experiments  have  gone,  the  specific  heat  of  gases 
is  not  seriously  affected  by  difference  of  pressure  and  volume. 


V.  V.'  O. 

FlG.  120. — DIAGRAM    ILLUSTRATING   ACCESSION    OF   HEAT   AND    INCREASE 
OF    PRESSURE   BY    COMPRESSION. 

Let  there  be  a  cylinder  of  known  area  of  piston,  filled 
with  unit  weight  of  gas,  of  known  temperature,  pressure, 
and  specific  heat.  Then  the  volume  will  be  that  which  is 
due  to  the  weight,  at  such  temperature  and  pressure;  and  if 
contained  in  a  full  working  cylinder,  the  volume  divided  by 
the  area  of  the  cylinder  will  give  the  length  of  stroke.  The 
intrinsic  energy  of  the  contents  (which  may  be  called  E)  will 
be  the  product  of  the  weight  of  the  gas  multiplied  by  the 
number  of  degrees  of  absolute  temperature,  and  by  its  spe- 
cific heat. 

In  Fig.  120,  let  the  length  of  the  horizontal  line  V  O  rep- 
resent the  initial  volume  of  such  weight  of  gas,  and  the 

(13) 


194  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

height  P  O  its  initial  absolute  pressure.  Then  when  the 
volume  is  reduced  to  V1  Q,  without  accession  of  heat,  the 
pressure  will  be  increased  to  P1  O,  and  the  two  parallelo- 
grams a  P  O  V  and  b  P1  O  V1  will  be  of  equal  area.  If 
the  interval  from  V  to  V1  is  relatively  small,  the  curve 
extending  from  a  to  b,  and  representing  the  increase  of 
pressure  during  such  compression,  will  approach  so  closely 
to  a  straight  line  that  the  mean  pressure  of  the  gas  during 
its  compression  between  the  two  volumes  V  and  V1  will 
practically  be  equal  to — 

PO+P1  O 
2 

If  the  mean  pressure  thus  ascertained  is  multiplied  by 
the  area  of  the  piston,  it  will  give  the  mean  resistance  to  it, 
or  the  mean  force  in  pounds  exerted  by  the  piston  of  the 
machine  during  the  operation.  This  force  multiplied  by  the 
distance  V  to  V1,  in  feet  (represented  in  the  diagram  by  the 
area  V  a  b  V1),will  give  the  foot-pounds  of  work,  or  the 
amount  of  energy,  exerted  by  the  piston  in  effecting  that 
stage  of  the  compression.  The  number  of  foot-pounds  thus 
arrived  at,  if  divided  by  772,  will  give  the  value  of  such 
energy  in  thermal  units. 

If  the  energy  in  the  gas  before  compression,  and  with 
the  piston  at  V,  equals  E,  and  the  additional  energy  which  is 
involved  in  compressing  it  from  V  to  V1  equals  E^ ,  then  the 
total  energy  in  the  gas  at  V1  will  be  E  -+-  Ev  instead  of  E,  and 
the  temperature  at  b  will  be  that  due  to  E  -f-  E1 ,  and  not 
that  due  to  E.  But  if  this  is  the  case,  and  the  pressure  is 
directly  as  the  temperature,  the  pressure  at  V1  will  not  be 
that  first  assumed,  and  represented  by  the  height  of  P1, 
above  O  at  the  point  b,  but  will  necessarily  be  increased  in 
the  ratio  of  E  to  E1,  as  the  effect  of  the  piston's  work  on  the 

p\  x  (E-\-E^^) 
gas  between  V  and  V1,  and  -      — ^ —  will  give  a  value 

P2  as  the  pressure  due  at  such  volume  to  the  energy  in  the 
gas. 

But  if  P2  is  the  real  pressure  after  compression,  then 

P-LJP* 

the  mean  pressure    during  compression  would   be  — -— 

p\    p\  2 

instead  of  — - which  has  just  been  assumed  to  be  the  case. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  195 

It  is  therefore  necessary  to  proceed  further,  and  ascertain 
the  value  of  the  work  or  energy,  E2,  due  to  the  area  and 
stroke  multiplied  by  the  small  difference  of  pressure  repre- 

/>2  _  pi" 

sented  by  --  -  --  ,  and  dealing-  with  it  in  the  same  way  as 

before  (by  adding-  to  the  already  accumulated  energy  the 
additional  energy  represented  by  the  triang-le  a  b  c),  find  a 
position  P3,  from  which  the  energy  and  consequent  increase 
of  pressure  represented  by  the  triangle  a  c  d  could  be 
deduced  and  added  to  the  g-as.  Before  this  is  done,  however, 
the  quantities  will  have  become  so  numerically  small  that 
P3  will  be  found  to  coincide  very  closely  with  the  value 
obtained  by  the  use  of  log-arithms.  If  still  greater  accuracy 
is  desired,  however,  then,  as  the  data  are  established  for  the 
area  of  the  triang-le  a  c  d,  the  heat  represented  by  the  addi- 
tional pressure  P3  may  be  added,  and  a  fourth  value  P4  be 
found,  and  so  on  to  the  infinitesimal. 

From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the  pressure  due  to 
adiabatic  compression  may  be  practically  arrived  at  by  a 
series  of  simple  arithmetical  additions;  it  may  also  be 
obtained  by  means  of  trials,  in  which  the  terminal  pressure 
to  each  stag-e  of  compression  is  assumed.  In  the  latter  case, 
the  heat  or  energy,  necessary  to  do  the  work  of  compressing- 
the  g"as  to  such  assumed  terminal  pressure  and  tempera- 
ture, is  added  to  the  initial  energy;  and  the  additional  pres- 
sure due  to  such  work,  is  then  added  to  the  increased  pres- 
sure which  is  due  simply  to  change  of  volume.  If  when  this 
is  done,  the  terminal  pressure  arrived  at  by  the  calculation 
corresponds  with  that  which  was  assumed,  it  may  be  taken 
for  granted  that  it  is  the  correct  one.  If  the  result  is  hig-her 
or  lower,  then  an  indication  will  be  given  for  further  trial, 
which  can  be  repeated  until  the  result  is  sufficiently  close 
for  the  purpose. 

If  the  interval  from  V  to  V1  in  Fig-.  120  is  so  relatively 
large  that  the  line  a  b  would  have  a  sensible  curve  in  it, 
then  it  is  certain  that  the  mean  pressure  during-  such  stage 


of  compression  would  be  sensibly  less  than  —  -  —  ,  and  there- 

2 

fore  any  results  which  mig-ht  be  obtained  by  considering-  it 
as  straig-ht,  would  be  too  hig-h. 


196 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


It  may  be  said  that  such  methods  of  calculation  are  use- 
less, because  a  table  of  logarithms  will  give  the  same  results 
in  much  less  time  than  is  required  for  the  more  lengthy  and 
laborious  calculation;  but  as  a  great  many  refrigerating 
engineers  may  not  think  so,  and  may  prefer  the  simple  to  the 
more  abstruse  operation,  it  will  perhaps  be  well  to  go  further, 
and  as  an  example  apply  these  methods  of  calculation  to  a 
compression  cylinder  of  a  definite  size,  and  a  gas  in  every  day 
use. 

Let  Fig.  121  represent  a  cylinder  containing  one  pound 
of  ammonia  gas,  at  a  temperature  of  32C  or  493°  absolute, 
and  a  little  over  two  atmospheres,  or  thirty  pounds  absolute 


ABSOLUTE    PRESSURES 


p'  ,v\'*s 
CONSTANT.  -£=(71) 


CUACE    PRESSURES 

165  Ibs. 


165     '• 

130     » 

120    » 
106     •• 
90    •> 
75    » 
60   •• 
45   » 
3O  " 
.      t*t  " 

/ 

ISO    « 
135     - 
ISO    " 
105     " 
9O   «• 
75    « 
60  » 
45  " 
30   " 
15    " 
O   " 

/ 

/ 

7 

/ 

IMM, 

/ 

^/ 

X 

/x 

93J 

X 

xx 

^^ 

xx 

^p. 

'*''?  V 

SOTS, 

•zz^'l'*** 

*"V' 

38, 

'  

ATMOSPHERIC 
O  " 
7 
/ 

LINE  . 

2"                     60"                   48"                   .36"     >30"-      24"2l"  18"        12"                     0"  OR  VACUUM. 
^.                    B.                    C.                     D         E.        F    C.   H.        J. 

INCHES    FROM    THE    END    OF   THE  STROKE 
OR    RELATIVE     VOLUMES. 

FlG.    121.  —  ADIABATIC    COMPRESSION    AND    EXPANSION    OF    AMMONIA. 

pressure;  then  according   to   table  on  page  191  the  volume 
in  cubic  feet  or  Fis  equal  to      ^Qr~p      The   pressure   P  is 

-L»^yo    JL^ 


thirty,  and  that  multiplied  by  1.598=47.94.  Whence  ^fVV 
gives  10.29  as  the  volume  of  the  gas  in  cubic  feet,  under  the 
conditions  stated. 

If  the  working  length  of  the  cylinder,  or  the  stroke,  is  six 
feet,  then,  --g-9-  gives  1.715  square  feet  for  the  cross  section 
of  cylinder,  which,  multiplied  by  144,  gives  246.9  (say  247) 
square  inches,  as  the  area  of  the  piston. 

The  initial  weight  of  the  gas  being  one  pound,  the  temper- 
ature 493°,  and  the  specific  heat  .391,  then  the  initial  intrin- 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


197 


sic  energy  of  the  gas  must  be  493  X  .391  =  192.76  thermal 
units  -  (1) 

If  the  compression  of  the  gas  from  the  full  six  feet 
length  of  the  cylinder,  be  calculated  through  a  series  of 
stages,  under  one  or  other  of  the  methods  just  suggested, 
and  the  results  be  compared  with  those  obtained  by  the  use 
of  logarithms,  it  will  possibly  lead  to  a  clearer  compre- 
hension of  the  specific  heat  of  gases  under  different  con- 
ditions. 

In  the  diagram  Fig.  121  there  are  seven  stages  of  com- 
pression illustrated  in  the  six  feet  stroke;  viz.,  three  of  one 
foot  each,  two  of  six  inches,  and  two  of  three  inches  each; 
until  the  gas  is  reduced  to  eighteen  inches  of  the  cylinder,  or 
to  one-quarter  of  its  initial  volume.  It  may  be  noted  here, 
that  with  the  accession  of  heat,  a  higher  pressure  is  seen  to 
be  reached  at  four-fold  compression,  than  is  shown  in  Fig. 
119,  with  six  volumes  compressed  into  one  under  constant 
temperature. 

The  total  length  of  the  cylinder  in  this  case  being  six 
feet,  the  proportion  occupied  after  the  several  stages  of  com- 
pression will  be  as  follows: 


Stage  of  Compression.             1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

The  length  of  the  cyl- 
inder  occupied  by 
the  gas                             5' 

4' 

2'   6" 

2' 

1'    9" 

1'    6" 

The  ratio  of  original 
to  new  volume  1.2 
The    ratio   raised  to 
the  power  y,  which 
for  ammonia=1.298   1  .  267 
The  initial  pressure 
of  thirty  pounds  ab- 
solute being  multi- 
plied by  these  log- 
arithmic ratios  giv- 
ing adiabatic  pres- 
sure    38.01 

1.5 
1.692 

50  76 

2. 
2.458 

73.74 

2.4 
3.116 

93  48 

3. 
4.162 

124  86 

3.42 
4.948 

148  44 

4. 
6.04 

181  2 

The  isothermal  pres- 
sures being  .              36. 

45 

60 

72. 

90. 

102.6 

120. 

To  calculate  the  adiabatic  pressures  for  these  same 
stages  of  compression  in  the  absence  of  tables  : — 

Commencing  with  the  initial  pressure  of  thirty  pounds, 
let  it  be  considered  that  at  the  end  of  the  first  stage  the  pis- 


198  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

ton  has  moved  one  foot,  reducing"  the  volume  in  the  ratio  of 
6  :  5;  and  that  the  terminal  pressure,  by  increasing-  in  the 
ratio  5  :  6,  would  be  thirty-six  pounds  from  alteration  of  vol- 
ume alone;  then  in  such  case  the  mean  pressure  on  the  piston 
during  its  movement  would  be  about  thirty-three  pounds, 
because  — 


2 

This  pressure,  thirty-three  pounds  by  247  inches  —  the 
area  of  the  piston  —  and  by  one  foot  stroke,  gives  8,151  foot- 
pounds as  the  work  of  compression;  which  is  equal  to  10.43 
heat  units.  Now,  as  the  original  energy  in  the  gas  (see  1) 
was  192.76  units,  the  accession  of  10.43  more  units  would 
raise  the  energy  of  the  mass  to  203.18  units  (2) 

The  pressure  for  constant  volume  is  directly  as  the  tem- 
perature or  energy;  and  therefore  the  pressure  of  the  g-as, 
when  the  effect  of  this  extra  10.43  units  is  taken  account  of, 
will  not  be  thirty-six  pounds  as  already  arrived  at,  but  — 
~36  X  203.18       _ 


192.76  - 

But  if  the  terminal  pressure  is  37.9  pounds  it  must 
upset  the  data  on  which  the  previous  work  was  based, 
because  if  the  terminal  pressure  is  37.9  instead  of  36,  then 
the  mean  pressure  would  be  33.95  instead  of  33;  and  the 
amount  of  heat  or  thermal  units  which  should  be  added  for 
the  work  done,  must  be  increased  in  like  proportion  —  which 
is  about  2.85  per  cent.  The  10.43  units  when  increased  by 
2.85  per  cent  amount  to  10.72  units,  and  we  can  now  start  the 
calculation  afresh,  with  10.72  units  as  the  measure  of  the 
additional  heat  due  to  the  work  of  compression,  the  total 
energy  in  the  gas  being  192.76  +  10.72  =  203.48  units  -  (3) 

.    36  X  203.48 
and     —        ^  -  38  pounds  pressure. 

This  amount  it  will  be  seen  is  only  one-tenth,  or  0.1  of  a 
pound,  more  than  was  taken  as  the  basis  of  the  second  trial; 
and  although  the  increment  would  be  too  small  to  have  any 
practical  value,  still  it  is  evident  that  by  performing-  another 
operation  to  ascertain  the  increase  of  pressure  that  would 
be  due  to  the  additional  temperature  that  would  result  from 
the  additional  mean  pressure  of  .05  pound  to  the  inch  on  the 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  199 

compressor  piston,  the  pressure  of  thirty-eight  pounds  would 
be  actually  increased  by  a  small  fraction.  The  result 
already  attained,  however,  is  so  close  (within  .01,  or  the  one- 
hundredth  part  of  one  pound  pressure)  to  the  pressure  as 
calculated  by  logarithms,  as  to  answer  perfectly  well  for  all 
practical  purposes.  In  connection  with  the  operation  of  a 
compressor,  where  ordinary  pressure  gauges  and  thermome- 
ters are  used,  the  calculation  of  the  pressure  to  several 
places  of  decimals  would  be  useless,  because  such  accuracy 
would  be  nullified  by  the  conditions  of  actual  work,  and  by 
the  relative  imperfections  of  the  instruments  employed. 

Commencing  the  second  stage  with  gas  at  thirty-eight 
pounds  pressure,  and  an  intrinsic  energy  of  203.48  units,  the 
movement  of  the  piston  through  the  second  foot  would  re- 
duce the  volume  in  the  ratio  of  5  :  4,  and  the  pressure  due  to 

38  X  5 
such  reduction  of  volume  alone  would  be  —  —  =47.5  pounds. 

For  this  stage  let  it  be  assumed  for  the  purpose  of 
trial  that  the  terminal  pressure  will  be  fifty  pounds  instead  of 

47.5,  then  as  —  JL  —  =44,  the  mean  pressure  must  be  taken 
as  forty-four  pounds,  instead  of  42.75  pounds  to  the  inch. 

A  pressure  of  forty-four  pounds  on  a  piston  area  of  247 
square  inches,  through  twelve  inches  of  space,  gives  10,868 
foot-pounds,  =  14.07  thermal  units. 

The  total  energy  at  the  end  of  the  former  stage  (3) 
was  203.48  T.  U.,  and  17.07  added  to  this,  gives  217.55  units 
total  energy  (4) 

The  temperature  being  as  the  amount  of  energy,  and 
the  pressure  as  the  temperature, 

47.5  X  217.55 
then  -  —  =^TT5  -  =o0.77  pounds  as  the  terminal  pressure. 


This  differs  by  only  one-tenth  of  1  per  cent  from  that 
calculated  by  the  logarithm  ratio,  viz.,  50.76  pounds. 

For  the  third  step,  reducing  the  volume  in  the  ratio  of 

50.77  X  4 
from    4  to  3,  and  initial  pressure  50.76  Ibs.,  -  ^-=  --  =67.6 

o 

pounds  as  the  pressure  due  to  reduction  of  volume  alone. 


200  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

For  trial,  as  to  the  energy  or  work  required  for  the 
actual  compression,  assume  72.25  pounds  to  be  the  ultimate  or 

terminal  pressure.    Then—      — - —        =61.5,  which   will   be 

assumed  as  the  mean  pressure  during  the  operation. 

The  area  of  piston  in  square  inches,  247,  multiplied  by 

61.5  pounds  through  one  foot,  gives  151,905  foot-pounds,  or 

19.6  thermal  units,  as  the  equivalent  of  the  work  of  compres- 
sion for  this  stage. 

The  energy  in  the  gas  at  the  end  of  the  previous  stage 
(4)  was  217. 55  units,  and  adding  to  this  19.6  additional  units 
as  above,  gives  a  total  energy  of  237.15  thermal  units  -  (5) 

66.6  Ibs.  X  237.15 
Then =  73.6  Ibs.  pressure  for  half  stroke. 

^4  ±-   /   •  ^O 

This  is  over  the  pressure  assumed,  and  indicates  that 
the  assumption  was  too  low ;  it  is  therefore  slightly  below 
the  pressure  found  by  means  of  logarithms,  viz.,  73.74 pounds. 

If  another  trial  is  made  and  the  pressure  is  assumed  to 
be  73.50,  instead  of  72.25,  then  the  result  will  come  out  prac- 
tically correct. 

Having  so  far  compressed  the  gas  to  one-half  of  its 
original  volume,  or  into  three  feet  length  of  the  cylinder,  let 
the  next  foot  be  made  by  two  stages  of  six  inches  each. 

The  initial  pressure  for  the  stage  is  73.7  pounds. 

The  energy  in  the  gas,  from  (5),  is  237.15  thermal  units. 

The  compression  from  three  feet  to  two  feet  six  inches  is 

in  the  ratio  of  6  :  5.  Then  —  -1— =  88. 44  pounds  as  the  pres- 

o 

sure  due  to  change  of  volume  only. 

The  mean  pressure  on  the  piston  for  such  an  increase 

would  be    -     — — — '•      =81.07  pounds. 

As  the  stroke  is  only  six  inches,  with  area  of  piston  as 

81.07  pounds  X  247  inches  area  ^,        . 

before,  -  ~~2~~  =  10>012.14.      That  is 

10,012.14  foot-pounds,  is  equal  to  12.97  thermal  units. 

The  initial  energy  of  the  gas  for  the  stage  was  237.15 
units  as (5) 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  201 

Therefore    the    terminal   energy   is  237.15   +   12.97   = 
250.12  -       (6) 

88.44  Ibs.  X  250.12       . 

£—        -  gives  93.27  Ibs.  terminal  pressure. 


It  is  here  evident  that  much  too  low  a  figure  was  assumed 
for  the  terminal  pressure  in  taking-  88.44  pounds,  because  the 
calculated  pressure  so  far  has  reached  93.27  pounds,  and 
therefore  the  amount  of  energy  added  to  the  gas  as  equiva- 
lent to  the  work  done  on  it  was  too  small  in  at  least  the  same 
proportion.  The  actual  increase  in  the  work  done  may  be 
approached  closer  by  a  sum  in  proportion,  and  — 

12.97  units  X  93.27 

—  „       .  -  gives  13.67  units  as  more  nearly   the 

equivalent  of  the  work  done  than  12.97  units. 

Trying  again  with  this  additional  energy  allowed  for, 
237.15  +  13.67  =  250.82  units  total  energy  (7) 

™,         88.44   X    250.8 

Then  -    —         —    -  gives  93.5  pounds  as  terminal  pressure. 

The  logarithm  pressure  is  93.42  pounds,  and  the  slight 
excess  probably  arises  from  the  mean  pressure  being  some- 
what less  than  an  arithmetical  mean  between  the  initial  and 
terminal  pressures. 

Commencing  the  second  half  of  the  fourth  foot  of  the 
piston's  stroke  with  a  pressure  of  93.5  pounds,  the  volume 
will  be  reduced  from  two  feet  six  inches  to  two  feet,  or  in  the 
ratio  of  5:4;  and  the  pressure  for  change  of  volume  will  be 
raised  proportionately. 

=  116.87  Ibs.  pressure  for  change  of  volume  alone. 

—  ^  —         =105.  18  arithmetical  mean  pressure  during  com- 

pression. 
The  stroke  being  six  inches  only— 

^l|X247_=12>9g9  7  f00t-pounds,  =  16.82  units. 

The  heat  energy  before  compression  was  250.82  units  and 
250.82+16.82  =  267.64,  total  units  -  -  (8) 

116.87  Ibs.  X  267.64 

^5082"      -  =  124'61bs- 

But  the  pressure  on  which  the  accession  of  heat  was 
based  was  only  116.87,  instead  of  124.6  pounds.  We  have 


202  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

still  therefore  to  allow  for  7.73  pounds  pressure,  and  conse- 
quently the  accession  of  heat  due  to  compression  instead  of 
being-  16.82  units  will  approximate  closely  to  — 

16.82X124.6 
-TT6^-     -17.93  units. 

Commencing-  ag-ain,  250.82+17.93  =  268.75  units        -       (9) 
as  the  total  energy  in  the  g-as  at  the  end  of  the  stag-e. 

116.8X268.75 


250.82  ' 

The  log-arithm  calculation  g-ives  124.86,  showing-  that  the 
mean  was  taken  a  little  too  hig-h. 

As  the  curve  in  the  fig-ure  becomes  more  pronounced  at 
the  .  hig-h  ratios  of  compression,  greater  accuracy  will  be 
secured  by  taking-  two  intervals  of  three  inches  each,  when 
reducing-  the  intervals  from  two  feet  to  one  foot  six  inches. 
First,  taking-  from  two  feet  to  one  foot  nine  inches,  the  ratio 
is  as  8  :  7. 

125  X  8 
—  ;-  —  =  142.85  Ibs.,  due  to  chang-e  of  volume  alone. 

Assuming-  an  ultimate  pressure  of  148  pounds,  take  the 
mean  pressure  at  136.5  pounds,  then  the  stroke  being-  the 
fourth  part  of  a  foot  — 

247  v  1  ^6  ^ 

^-^          =  8,428.8  foot-pounds,  =  10.  91  units. 

The  energy  of  the  g-as  at  twenty-four  inches  was  268.75 
units  (9) 

and  268.75+10.91  =  279.66  (10) 

rp,         142.85  Ibs.  X  279.66 

"  26875  =  po^ds. 

The  result  as  given  by  log-arithms  =  148.4  pounds. 
Take  next  step,  from  one  foot  nine  inches  to  one  foot  six 
inches  of  cylinder,  the  ratio  being-  7  :  6,— 

=  173.25  pressure  due  to  volume  alone. 

173.25+148.5 

—  -  —  =  160.8  mean  pressure. 

1^§_  L?1Z=  9,929.4  foot-pounds=12.84  units. 
The  heat  energy  before  compression  was  279.66     -     (10) 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  203 

Then  279.66+12.84  =  292.50  total  units       -  (11) 

173.25  X  292.5 

And  -  -  =181.2  Ibs.  to  the  inch. 

279.  ob 

The  result  as  given  by  logarithms  —  181.2. 

If  the  condenser  pressure  is  taken  for  the  terminal  pres- 
sure in  any  compressor,  and  it  is  required  to  ascertain  the 
volume  of  the  gas  as  expelled,  or  the  point  where  expulsion 
commences,  it  can  be  found,  by  working  up  step-by-step 
from  the  back  pressure  and  temperatures,  until  it  is  reached. 
If  the  elementary  methods  thus  far  explained,  for  the  benefit 
of  weak  mathematicians  like  the  writer,  should  give  the 
reader  a  taste  for  deeper  research  into  the  subject,  there  are 
plenty  of  advanced  works  on  thermodynamics  now  available 
for  him  to  wade  into.  It  is  not  generally  found,  however, 
that  deep  academic  research,  and  great  practical  skill  and 
experience  in  the  operation  of  machinery,  go  hand  in  hand; 
the  author  at  any  rate  has  never  yet  met  them  combined  in 
the  one  engineer. 

Life  is  too  short,  and  the  world  is  too  full  of  trouble,  for 
a  single  individual  to  be  able  to  know  everything  even  about 
the  machinery  of  refrigeration,  although,  perchance,  you  may 
occasionally  meet  a  man  who  thinks  he  fills  the  order. 


204  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

STEAM    BOILERS    FOR    COLD    STORAGE    AND    ICE 

MAKING. 

Except  in  the  small  minority  of  cases  where  ample  water 
power  is  at  hand,  artificial  refrigeration,  through  the  instru- 
mentality of  a  compressor,  is  absolutely  dependent  upon  the 
boiler  as  the  mainspring-  of  its  operations.  Its  efficiency  and 
economy  become  therefore  of  vital  importance  in  such  con- 
nection. The  subjects  connected  with  boilers  are  however 
so  varied  and  extensive,  and  they  have  already  such  a  consid- 
erable literature  of  their  own — wherein  design,  construction, 
use  and  maintenance  are  fully  dealt  with — that  it  may  be 
considered  not  only  rash  but  futile  to  attempt  to  compress 
any  useful  information  connected  with  them  into  the  com- 
pass of  a  single  chapter.  On  the  other  hand  it  is  possible 
that  a  few  things  may  be  said  which,  without  going-  too  fully 
into  details,  are  pertinent  to  the  interests  of  those  who  are 
connected  with  refrigeration  and  ice  making-  machinery. 

Like  every  other  steam  user  the  owner  of  a  compressor 
is  sure  to  be  full  of  cares  in  connection  with  his  machinery, 
and  when  it  comes  to  the  boiler,  there  are  several  points 
about  which -he  may  fairly  be  anxious.  First,  That  his 
boiler  should  be  economical  in  initial  cost.  Secondly,  That 
he  shall  obtain  from  it  as  many  pounds  of  steam  as  possible, 
for  every  pound  of  coal  he  pays  for.  And  Thirdly,  That  it 
should  cost  the  minimum  amount  for  attention,  maintenance 
and  repairs. 

Sometimes  it  is  desirable — as  with  other  industries— 
that  the  boiler  of  an  ice  factory  should  occupy  as  little  space 
as  possible,  and  be  independent  of  brick  setting-.  In  other 
cases,  as  when  the  boiler  has  to  be  set  up  in  the  close  neig-h- 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  205 

borhood  of  refrigerating-  tanks  or  cold  chambers,  the  heat 
radiated  from  the  boiler  and  its  setting  is  not  only  a  direct 
loss  of  power,  but  an  indirect  loss  also,  because  by  heating 
the  surroundings,  it  increases  the  work  of  the  compressor, 
which  has  to  pump  such  heat  out  again. 

THE    WATER    TUBE    BOILER. 

When  we  come  to  investigate  the  relative  cost  of  different 
types  of  boilers,  we  first  note  that  the  evaporation  of  water 
into  steam  is  very  largely  a  question  of  having  such  water 
contained  in  a  vessel,  and  in  contact  with  one  side  of  a  metal 
plate,  which  plate  has  its  other  side  exposed  to  direct  radia- 
tion from  the  combustion  of  fuel,  or  to  the  heated  gases 
resulting  therefrom.  It  then  becomes  evident,  as  metal  is 
generally  sold  by  the  pound,  that  prima  facie,  the  thinnest 
boiler  will  be  the  cheapest.  A  ton  weight  of  metallic  water- 
vessels,  in  the  form  of  small  tubes,  will  certainly  afford  two 
or  three  times  the  heating  surface  that  a  ton  of  plates  in  an 
ordinary  big  boiler  shell  will  do,  and  therefore,  other  things 
being  equal,  water  tube  boilers  should  be  the  cheapest  form  to 
construct  for  any  given  power.  There  is  no  doubt,  more- 
over, as  to  their  possession  of  other  good  qualities,  although 
such  are  often  exaggerated  by  persons  interested  in  the 
sale  of  them.  On  its  average  merits,  however,  the  water  tube 
boiler  has  undoubtedly  come  to  stay. 

The  conditions  are  not  so  favorable  to  water  tubes  when 
the  steam  user  has  a  supply  of  water  impregnated  with 
minerals,  which  lines  them  up  with  a  casing  or  coating 
almost  like  marble.  Such  scale  seriously  obstructs  the  con- 
duction of  heat,  so  that  the  coal  bill  may  easily  be  doubled,  or 
the  owner  may  have  to  pay  more  for  keeping  the  boiler  tubes 
clean  than  the  interest  on  the  boiler  itself  comes  to,  if  it  is  not 
done  in  a  proper  and  scientific  manner. 

There  are  now,  however,  many  special  appliances  pro- 
vided for  boring  out  the  deposit  in  water  tubes,  some  of 
which,  operated  by  tube  cleaner  companies,  such  as  the  Union 
Boiler  Tube  Cleaner  Co.,  of  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  U.  S.  A.,  are  so 
efficient  that  the  removal  of  the  scale  becomes  a  compara- 
tively simple  affair.  The  necessity  for  this  cleaning  is 
forcibly  shown  by  certificates  that  boilers  after  being  cleaned 
had  risen  from  24.8  per  cent  to  100  per  cent  evaporative 


206  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

efficiency  ;  or,  in  other  words,  had  by  fouling-  lost  75.2  per 
cent,  which  was  restored  by  the  application  of  a  cleaner  for 
a  few  minutes  to  each  tube. 

If  the  water  is  of  an  unimpeachable  character,  or  if  the 
deposit  can  be  thrown  down  in  separate  vessels — either  by 
heating-  it  in  an  exhaust  steam  feed  heater,  as  Fig-s.  144  and 
145,  or  one  to  heat  it  to  full  boiler  temperature — before  feed- 
ing- it  into  the  boiler  itself,  as  Figs.  146  and  147,  then  the 
water  tube  boiler  should  give  satisfaction.  They  are  specially 
adapted  for  high  pressure,  look  well  from  the  outside,  and 


FlG.    122. — WATER    TUBE    WITH  FlG.    123. — FIRE    TUBE    WITH 

SCALE   INSIDE.  SCALE   OUTSIDE. 

will  evaporate  as  much  water  as  any  other  well  proportioned 
boiler  as  long  as  they  are  kept  clean;  but,  unfortunately 
with  no  other  type  are  there  such  difficulties  in  the  way  of 
speedily  removing  the  hard  scale,  or  deposit,  which  rapidl}^ 
lowers  the  evaporative  efficiency. 

As  this  may  be  thought  a  strong  thing  to  say,  Figs.  122 
and  123  should  be  studied;  they  show  that  the  deposit  in  the 
water  tube  is  absolutely  bound  in  like  an  arch,  and  cannot  be 
moved  until  the  key  is  forcibly  broken. 

The  scale  however  on  the  outside  of  the  fire  tube  will 
crack  and  drop  off  with  a  tap  of  a  hammer,  or  fly  by  the  sud- 
den expansion  of  the  tube,  when  a  red  hot  heater  is  passed 
through  it.  With  ordinary  hand  appliances  and  hard  scale 
it  is  no  uncommon  thing  for  three  men  to  be  half  an  hour 
cleaning  one  water  tube;  and  this  costly  process  had  con- 
siderable weight  in  restricting  the  use  of  water  tube  boilers 
in  many  localities  before  the  resources  of  inventors  provided 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  207 

means  for  the  simple  and  effective  removal  of  the  deposit. 
So  many  fine  water  tube  boilers  are  now  made  that  it 
would  be  invidious  to  mention  any  by  name.  Purchasers 
should  look  for  rapid  circulation  over  the  heating-  surfaces, 
and  quiet  water  in  the  mud  drums,  as  well  as  simple  arrange- 
ments for  cleaning-  and  removing-  the  tubes. 

MULTITUBULAR    BOILER. 

The  most  formidable  all-round  rival  to  the  water  tube 
class,  seems  to  be  the  ordinary  underfired  multitubular  boiler, 
which  appears  to  hold  the  premier  place  in  the  ice  factory,  not 
only  in  the  United  States,  but  in  Australia  also.  When  this 
boiler  is  properly  proportioned  and  properly  set,  and  is  sup- 
plied with  good  water,  it  is,  in  the  author's  opinion,  the  best, 
the  cheapest  and  the  simplest,  for  its  efficiency,  of  any  boiler 
made.  If  such  a  boiler  is  worked  with  liquid  mud,  instead 
of  water,  then  it  should  cause  no  surprise  to  see  carbuncles 
form  on  the  shell  over  fire  ;  such  things  have  happened 
through  carelessness  or  ignorance,  and  will  probably  occur 
again.  Further  it  will  not  do  to  blow  these  boilers  off  half 
an  hour  after  shutting  down  at  week's-end  on  Saturday, 
and  then  fill  them  up  again  the  same  afternoon,  when  part  of 
the  bottom  has  become  red  hot  from  the  incandescent  furnace 
walls.  A  new  $4,000  boiler  was  thus  ruined  in  one  act,  by  a 
fireman's  inexperience,  to  the  author's  personal  knowledge. 
Again  these  boilers — often  as  much  as  five-eighths  of  an  inch 
thick  over  the  fire — are  very  susceptible  to  the  action  of 
cylinder  oil,  when  it  is  returned  with  the  feed  water.  The 
oil  is  apt  to  form  a  leathery  skin,  which  keeps  the  water  from 
direct  contact  with  the  plates,  and  is  highly  non-conducting. 
One  battery  of  water  works  boilers  in  Australia,  at  any  rate, 
are  known  to  have  become  burnt  in  their  bottoms  through 
this  cause.  Perfect  filtration  and  separation  of  the  oil  is  ab- 
solutely necessary  for  the  underfired  boilers  if  the  condensed 
water  is  returned  as  feed.  Mr.  Blechynden,  who  made  ex- 
haustive experiments  on  the  transmission  of  heat  through 
plates,  has  shown  that  the  slightest  deposit  of  grease  or  dirt 
on  the  plates  causes  a  large  fall  off  in  the  transmission  of  heat 
through  them. 

As  made  in  the  United  States,  and  illustrated  in  the  cata- 
logues of  refrigeration  and  other  engineers,  multitubular 


208  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

boilers  for  a  given  horse  power,  seem  to  be  smaller  in  diame- 
ter and  to  be  crammed  much  more  closely  with  tubes,  than 
is  customary  in  Australia. 

The  pages  of  Ice  and  Refrigeration  show,  that  at  least 
one  boiler  explosion  at  an  ice  factory  has  been  attributable  to 
this  close  packing  of  tubes,  which  caused  a  bad  circulation, 
and  a  jamming  of  dirt,  in  the  narrow  space  between  the  tubes 
and  the  shell.  It  seems  to  be  often  forgotten  that  the  length 
and  diameter  of  the  tubes  in  a  boiler  should  be  determined 
by  the  pressure  of  the  draft  the  chimney  can  produce.  If 
the  draft  is  light,  and  the  tubes  are  small  and  long*,  what 
wonder  the}7  soon  foul  up  and  require  constant  brushing  or 
steam  blasting?  Australian  boiler  builders  appear  generally 
to  favor  larger  tubes  than  either  English  or  American 
makers,  four  inches  diameter  being  a  common  size,  and  it  is 
usual  to  set  them  with  space  down  the  middle  of  the  boiler 
wide  enough  for  a  lad  to  get  down.  This  allows  for  easy 
scaling,  and  assists  circulation.  It  is  an  undoubted  fact  that 
numbers  of  these  boilers,  which  were  originally  stuck  as  full 
of  tubes  as  they  could  hold,  have  had  their  evaporative  effi- 
ciency improved  by  taking  out  a  row  or  two  in  the  wings,  or 
down  the  center  of  the  barrel. 

The  suspension  of  multitubular  boilers  over  their  fur- 
naces has  formed  the  theme  of  several  engineering  papers, 
and  in  the  discussions  thereon  great  differences  of  opinion 
as  to  small  details  have  been  manifested;  but  there  is  a 
general  consensus  of  opinion,  that  such  boilers  should  be  sus- 
pended from  above,  and  not  rest  on  the  side  walls  of  the  fur- 
nace. The  long  projecting  brackets  sometimes  attached  to 
the  shell,  to  rest  on  the  top  of  the  side  wall,  must  throw  a 
great  wrenching  strain  on  the  plates,  and  an  angle  iron 
extending  the  whole  length  of  the  boiler  is  preferable  for  this 
purpose  if  the  boiler  is  not  to  be  hung  from  girders  over- 
head. 

In  the  mounting  and  setting  of  multitubular  boilers, 
there  is  room  for  great  differences  of  opinion,  every  maker 
more  or  less  following  his  own  ideas. 

For  country  use  in  Australia,  and  in  sizes  up  to  about 
twenty  nominal  horse  power,  these  boilers  are  made  with  a 
sheet  iron  casing  lined  with  fire  brick,  and  are  known  as  colo- 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


209 


nial  boilers.  They  are  very  handy  and  portable,  as  will  be 
seen  by  Fig-.  124,  but  as  they  waste  fuel  by  diffusing-  the  heat 
of  the  furnace  around  them  through  the  four  and  one-half 
inches  thick  of  fire  brick  walls,  they  can  hardly  be  recom- 


FlG.   124. — UNDER-FIRED    BOILER — COLONIAL    TYPE. 

mended  in  connection  with  refrigeration,   except  for  very 
small  plants. 

SPECIAL   MULTITUBULAR    BOILER    FOR    ICE    FACTORY. 

As  a  direct  contrast  to  the  colonial  boiler  just  referred 
to,  Figs.  125,  126,  127  and  128  show  four  views  of  a  multi- 
tubular  boiler  designed  by  the  author,  with  a  brick  work  set- 
ting specially  suited  for  refrigerating-  houses.  A  number  of 
these  are  working-  in  Sydney,  and  are  giving"  great  satisfac- 
tion, although  not  in  connection  with  refrig-eration. 

As  will  be  seen,  the  air  for  combustion  is  taken  through 
the  hollow  side  walls  to  the  ash  pit;  and  all  the  radiant  heat 
thus  intercepted  is  returned  in  the  heated  air  supplied  to  the 
furnace.  This  is  of  course  a  double  advantage,  because 

(14) 


210 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

T7 


g^^l^ffisffiff^^ 

FlG.   125 — MULT1TUBULAR    BOILER— LONGITUDINAL    SECTION. 


FlG.    126 — MULTITUBULAR    BOILER— PLAN. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


211 


FlG.    127 — MULTITUBULAR   BOILER — DOUBLE    FLUE   SETTING 
— FRONT   ELEVATION. 


FlG.   128 — MULTITUBULAR   BOILER— DOUBLE    FLUE 
SETTING — SECTIONAL    VIEW. 


212  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

there  is  first,  better  combustion  from  the  heated  air  delivered 
to  the  fuel;  and  secondly,  by  the  interception  of  the  radiant 
heat,  the  walls  on  the  outside  of  the  brick  setting-  are  kept 
cool.  A  third  advantage  is,  that  the  boiler  can  be  shut  down 
from  six  o'clock  in  the  evening-  to  six  o'clock  next  morning 
without  losing-  more  than  a  few  pounds  of  steam. 

If  Figs.  125  and  127  are  examined,  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
ash  pit  doors  have  no  hinges;  but  have  a  planed  groove  at  bot- 
tom, which  slides  on  a  V-shaped  rail.  It  is  very  hard  to 
understand  why  so  many  boilers  should  be  made  with  their 
ash  doors  hinged,  so  that  when  they  stand  open  there  is  a 
direct  inducement  for  the  fireman  to  break  his  shins  over 
them.  Apart  from  the  slovenly  appearance,  when  they  open 
at  all  angles  on  the  floor  plates,  it  is  really  much  easier  to 
regulate  the  draft  when  such  doors  slide  than  it  is  when 
they  are  hinged.  In  this  particular  setting  the  doors  are 
always  kept  closed  (except  when  cleaning  out  the  ashes), 
because  the  air  for  combustion  enters  the  regenerative  cas- 
ing by  the  regulator  at  the  back,  and  leaves  for  the  ash  pit 
by  the  openings  under  the  fire  bars — see  Figs.  125  and  126. 
With  these  underfilled  boilers,  plenty  of  space  should  be 
left  at  the  rear  for  a  large  combustion  chamber,  to  permit 
the  thorough  admixture  of  the  gases;  otherwise  many  of  the 
tubes  may  have  a  defective  supply  of  oxygen,  and  fire  will 
show  at  the  front  end  when  the  tube  doors  are  opened,  or 
even  at  the  top  of  the  chimney — a  sure  sign  of  something 
very  wrong. 

THK    CORNISH    BOILER. 

Human  ingenuity  has  been  at  work  for  nearly  a  centurv 
designing  new  patterns  of  steam  boilers.  Their  number  is 
now  so  great  as  to  pass  any  one  man's  knowledge,  and  their 
complicated  construction,  any  one  man's  power  of  under- 
standing. For  all  that,  the  most  fearful  and  wonderful  designs 
are  still  being  continually  evolved  from  inventors'  brains. 
Some  of  these  get  so  far  as  to  be  made  and  tested,  while  a 
few  reach  the  advertising  pages  of  the  engineering  journals. 

The  very  best  advice  that  can  be  offered  to  any  steam 
user,  who  is  not  himself  an  expert,  is  to  have  nothing  to  do 
with  any  revolutionary  invention;  simplicity  is  the  great 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  213 

desideratum  in  a  boiler,  and  complication  should  be  shunned. 
There  appears  after  all  these  years  to  be  only  one  man  who 
is  entitled  to  immortality  in  connection  with  this  branch  of 
engineering-,  and  that  is  the  father  of  the  high  pressure 
steam  boiler,  and  of  the  locomotive— Richard  Trevitbick. 

One  hundred  years  ago,  in  1799-1800,  this  great  Cornish- 
man  was  bringing-  his  high  pressure  **  puffing"  engines  into 
competition  with  Boulton  &  Watt's  condensers.  The 
"hearse"  or  "wagon''  boiler  of  his  rivals  had  superseded 
Xewcomen's  "pot"  boilers;  but  however  good  the  wagon 
boilers  might  be  for  one  or  two  pounds  pressure  of  steam, 
they  were  utterly  useless  for  the  twenty-five  or  thirty 
pounds  which  the  "puffers"  worked  at.  This  led  Trevi- 
thick  to  introduce  the  horizontal  cylindrical  boiler,  with  a 
tubular  furnace  and  flue,  which  is  now,  after  a  whole  century 
of  use,  absolutely  the  same  as  Trevithick  left  it  so  far  as 
form  is  concerned;  and  it  is  still  known  as  the  Cornish  boiler. 
These  pages  are  hardly  the  place  in  which  to  pay  a  tribute  to 
this  great  inventor  of  engines,  boilers,  pumps,  steam  whims, 
etc.,  and  also  of  the  locomotive,  which  anticipated  Stephen- 
son  by  many  years.  Fortune  favored  Watt  and  Stephenson 
however,  and  public  opinion  has  almost  made  gods  of  them, 
while  Trevithick's  fame  seems  fair  to  be  forgotten.  Neither 
Watt  nor  Stephenson  appears  to  have  had  the  mechanical 
genius  of  Trevithick,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  the  world's  real 
debt  to  the  two  together,  is  as  great  as  it  is  to  the  rugged 
Cornishman.  Trevithick  however  did  not  possess  that 
faculty  o>l  generalship,,  which  is  at  the  present  day — just  as  it 
was  in  his  own  time — a  greater  factor  than  either  genius  or 
mechanical  skill  in  securing  honors  and  pecuniary  rewards. 

Trevithick's  Cornish  boiler  is  still  as  good  a  one  as  can  be 
obtained  for  the  work  of  refrigeration,  where  there  is  plenty 
of  ground  space,  and  where  first  cost  is  not  so  important  as 
ultimate  economy.  Such  boilers  are  made  by  thousands 
every  year,  and  are  used  all  over  the  world,  as  they  will  run 
for  lengthened  periods  with  less  attention  than  some  of  the 
modern  patent  boilers  require  every  week.  In  the  best 
boiler  builder's  work,  all  angle  irons  are  dispensed  with,  and 
the  boiler  ends  are  deeply  flanged  from  steel  plate  circles. 
The  furnaces  are  all  welded  up  in  lengths,  without  rivets  or 


214 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


longitudinal  seams,  and  should  be  made  with  the  Adamson 
joint,  or  be  corrugated  after  one  of  the  patents  shown  by 


fox's. 


FlG.  '129 — VARIOUS     PATENTED     SYSTEMS     FOR     STRENGTHENING     BOILER 
FLUES   TO   RESIST    COLLAPSING    PRESSURE. 

Fig-.  129.     The  flue  behind  the  furnace  should  be  made  the 
same   way,  and   is  further   strengthened   g-enerally   by   the 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


215 


insertion  of  water  tubes.     Fig-.   130  shows  the   front  of 
modern  Cornish  boiler  fitted  with  an  automatic  stoker. 


FlG.    130. — CORNISH    BOILER   WITH   AUTOMATIC    STOKER. 

The  following-  table  gives  the  weight  and  evaporation 
efficiency  of  three  sizes  of  modern  Cornish  boilers  by  Eng- 
lish makers: 


• 

b 

dj  «i 

FOR  160  LBS.  PRESSURE. 

FOR  140  LBS.  PRESSURE. 

p 

QO 

ii 

•!* 

to 

! 

Wl 

w* 

Weight. 
Boiler. 

Weight. 
Fittings. 

Weight. 
Boiler. 

Weight. 
Fittings. 

5'   6" 

3'    0" 

16'   5" 

2,2251bs. 

14,000  Ibs. 

6,720  Ibs. 

17,248  Ibs. 

6,950  Ibs. 

5'   6" 

3'    0" 

20'    6" 

2,950    " 

16,352     " 

7,050     " 

20,160     " 

7,286     " 

6'   3" 

3'    6" 

20'   6" 

3,700    " 

22,960     " 

8,170     " 

26,880     " 

8,406     " 

If  sixteen  pounds  consumption  of  steam  per  horse  power 
per  hour  is  allowed  for  the  140  pounds  pressure  boilers,  then 
their  horse  power  comes  out  at  139,  184,  and  231.  Allowing- 
fourteen  pounds  consumption  for  the  160  pounds  pressure, 
it  makes  the  horse  powers  159,  210,  and  264,  respectively. 


216 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


THE    LANCASHIRE    BOILER. 

When  Trevithick  boilers  are  made  six  feet  or  more  in 
diameter,  they  are  generally  fitted  with  two  furnaces  instead 
of  one,  and  are  then  called  Lancashire  boilers.  Fig-.  131  is  a 
longitudinal  section  of  a  modern  Lancashire  boiler,  suitable 
for  140  pounds  pressure  to  the  square  inch,  fitted  with  Gallo- 
way tubes  in  the  flues.  It  is  a  common  thing-  to  hear  any 
ordinary  water  tubes,  which  cross  a  horizontal  or  vertical 
furnace,  called  "Galloways";  the  essence  of  the  Galloway 
tube  however,  is  its  conical  form,  so  made  in  order  that  the 
flange  at  the  small  end  may  go  through  the  hole  cut  for  the 
large  end.  The  small  flange  is  thus  fitted  inside  the  flue,  as 
seen  in  the  section,  while  the  large  flange  fits  on  the  outside. 
The  Galloway  company  of  Manchester,  England,  are  among 
the  most  celebrated  makers  of  land  boilers  in  the  world,  and 
their  special  "Galloway  boiler"  is  a  modification  of  the  Lan- 
cashire form;  in  this  system  the  two  furnaces  merge  into  a 
•single  kidney-shaped  tube  or  flue,  which  is  filled  with  taper 
water  tubes,  vertical  and  inclined. 

The  following  table  gives  particulars  of  eight  sizes  of 
Lancashire  boilers  (two  flues)  for  105  pounds  working  pres- 
sure. From  eighteen  to  twenty-six  pounds  of  coal  may  be 
effectively  burnt  on  each  square  foot  of  grate  per  hour,  with 
a  good  chimney  draft: 


Diam. 
of 
boiler. 

Length 
of 

boiler. 

Diam. 
of 
flues. 

Length 
of 
grates. 

Grate 
surface. 

Effective 
heating- 
surface. 

Approximate  weight  of 
boiler  and  mountings 
for  105  Ibs.  working- 
pressure. 

Ft.    In. 

Ft. 

Ft.    In. 

Ft.    In. 

Sq.  Ft. 

Sq.  Ft. 

Tons.  Cwt. 

Pounds. 

6       6 

18 

2       6 

4       6 

25.5 

420 

11           9 

25,648 

6      6 

27 

2       6 

6       0 

30 

633 

15         0 

33,600 

7      0 

21 

2      9 

5      0 

27.5 

541 

13       12 

30,464 

7      0 

30 

2      9 

6      0 

33 

775 

18         2 

40,544 

7      6 

21 

3      0 

5      0 

30 

585 

15       12 

34,944 

7      6 

30 

3      0 

6      0 

36 

839 

20       11 

46,032 

8      0 

21 

3      3 

5      0 

32.5 

626 

17        7 

38,864 

8      0 

30 

3      3 

6      0 

39 

898 

22       18 

51,296 

Fig.  132  shows  a  front  view  of  Fig.  131.  The  right  hand 
furnace  front  being  removed,  allows  the  crossed  Galloway 
tubes  to  be  seen,  and  Fig.  133  is  a  section  of  the  Galloway 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


217 


218 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


patent  boiler,  with  two  furnaces  uniting*  in  one  wide  flue, 
filled  with  their  special  water  tubes.  It  will  be  noted  that  in 
Fig1.  131  there  is  a  perforated  feed  pipe,  an  anti-primer  for 


FlG.   132. — LANCASHIRE    BOILER — FRONT    ELEVATION. 

taking  dry  steam,  a  hig^h  and  low  water  alarm,  dead  weight 
safety  valves,  and  a  corrug-ated  man  hole  door,  all  important. 

CORNISH    TUBULAR    BOILEK. 

A  modification  of  the  Cornish  boiler,  which  is  daily  grow- 
ing1 in  favor,  is  shown  in  the  four  illustrations  Fig's  134  to  137, 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


219 


which  represent  a  boiler  specially  designed  by  the  author,  for 
using-  water  which  makes  a  very  hard  deposit.  There  are 
several  wide  departures  in  it  from  common  practice,  the  prin- 
cipal of  which  is  the  placing-  of  the  furnace  to  one  side,  in- 
stead of  in  the  center  of  the  shell. 

This  arrangement  g-ives  great  facilities  for  the  exami- 
nation and  cleaning-  of  the  inside,  and  also  promotes  better 
circulation.  The  multitubular  arrang-ement  of  the  back 
breaks  up  the  g-ases,  and  by  the  increase  of  heating  surface 
enables  the  whole  boiler  to  be  materially  shortened.  Two 


FlG.  133. — SECTION    OF   GALLOWAY    BOILER. 

eminent  English  authorities  have  certified  that  a  boiler  of 
this  design  in  use  at  the  office  of  a  London  daily  paper  had  an 
efficiency  equal  to  the  evaporation  of  10.15  pounds  of  water 
from  212C  per  pound  of  coal  consumed. 

By  the  adoption  of  one  large  four-feet  furnace  instead 
of  having  two  furnaces  each  two  feet  six  inches  diameter,  as 
is  common  with  seven-feet  shells,  a  much  better  combustion 
of  the  fuel  is  possible;  but  with  a  high  pressure  like  120 
pounds  it  requires  a  special  construction  of  the  furnace,  on 
one  of  the  systems  shown  by  Fig.  129,  to  withstand  the 


220 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION, 


221 


222  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

collapsing-  strain  with  metal  of  a  reasonable  thickness.  It  is 
the  Adamson  joint  which  is  shown  and  adopted,  principally 
for  the  reason  that  nearly  all  first-class  boiler  shops  have 
now  a  flanging  machine,  whereas  the  various  systems  of 
corrug-ated  furnaces  require  a  special  plant  to  produce  them. 
The  "Morrison,"  which  has  to  a  large  extent  superseded 
Sampson  Foxe's  original  corrug-ated  furnace,  is  perhaps  the 
most  popular  one  on  shipboard  now. 

THK    RBGENERATIVB    SETTING. 

In  this  boiler,  Fig.  134  as  well  as  in  the  multitubular 
boiler,  Fig-.  125,  the  "  setting-  "  is  arrang-ed  with  double  flues; 
those  next  the  boiler  itself  are  traversed  by  the  hot  gases 
of  combustion  on  their  way  to  the  chimney  while  the  outer 
passages  in  the  brick  work  serve  to  bring  the  cold  air  to  the 
furnace.  After  several  years'  experience  with  boilers  set 
in  this  way,  the  author  is  able  to  say  with  confidence  that 
the  arrangement  is  a  most  successful  one.  It  is  really  pos- 
sible to  be  for  some  time  close  at  hand  to  the  boiler  without 
knowing  it  is  at  work,  as  the  outer  brick  work  keeps  perfectly 
cool.  For  this  reason  the  walls  do  not  crack  and  let  in  the 
cold  air,  or  require  buck  staffs  to  keep  them  together. 

For  an  ice  factory  where  the  water  supply  is  brackish, 
or  has  a  heavy  impregnation  of  other  mineral  substances, 
and  space  is  available,  the  Lancashire  and  Cornish  tubular 
boilers  may  be  relied  upon  for  giving-  satisfaction.  Where 
the  water  is  good  the  underfired  boiler,  as  Figs.  124,  125, 
would  be  the  most  economical  in  the  long-  run.  Where  it  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  make  the  most  steam  in  the  least 
space,  no  doubt  the  locomotive  boiler,  like  Fig.  138,  would  best 
answer  the  requirements.  A  boiler  of  this  type  may  be  made 
with  tubes  as  small  as  one  and  one-half  inches  or  one  and 
one-quarter  inches  diameter  and  by  having-  a  forced  draft  will 
burn  five  times  as  much  fuel  per  square  foot  of  grate  sur- 
face as  would  be  economical  or  desirable  with  either  the 
underfired  boiler  or  the  Cornish  one. 

THE   GENERAL  CONSTRUCTION  AND    MOUNTINGS  OF    BOILERS    FOR 
ICE  PLANTS  AND  COLD  STORES. 

Leaving-  for  the  present  the  old  argument  that  there  is 
no  advantag-e  in  having  an  economical  engine  to  operate  the 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


223 


FlG.   136 — CORNISH   TUBULAR    BOILER — FRONT   ELEVATION. 


v J 

FlG.    137 — CORNISH   TUBULAR    BOILER — SECTION. 


224 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


machinery  in  an  ice  factory,  because  you  must  evaporate  a 
greater  weight  of  water  to  supply  the  distillate  for  the  ice 
cans  than  even  a  wasteful  engine  requires,  it  would  be  a  fair 
thing  to  assume  a  working  steam  pressure  of  at  least  120 
pounds  to  the  inch,  if  coal  costs  as  much  as  $2.50,  or  ten  shil- 
lings, a  ton.  If  economy  based  upon  the  best  practice  is 
desired,  owing  to  more  costly  fuel,  then  160  to  200  pounds 
may  be  employed.  Now  in  order  to  carry  120  pounds  work- 


FlG.   138. — LOCOMOTIVE    TYPE    STATIONARY    BOILER. 

ing  pressure,  year  in  and  year  out,  with  satisfaction,  the  con- 
ditions demand  first-class  material  and  workmanship,  and  a 
cheap  boiler  will  surely  prove  in  the  long"  run  a  most  costly 
investment;  the  highest  bid  however  does  not  necessarily 
guarantee  the  highest  quality  in  the  article  supplied. 

Among  the  many  important  points  to  be  looked  for  in  a 
good  boiler,  the  most  essential  perhaps  are  among  the  follow- 
ing: Material,  mild  ductile  steel  of  moderate  —  say  twenty- 
eighttons,  and  nothigh, say  thirty-two  tons— tensional  strength 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


225 


under  test,  for  shells,  furnaces  and  flues.  All  plates  to  be 
planed  on  their  edges.  All  rivet  holes  to  be  drilled  in  place, 
after  the  plates  are  bent.  All  longitudinal  seams  to  be  at 
least  double  riveted,  or  double  strapped.  Manholes  to  be 
strengthened  with  special  reinforcement  rings,  and  have 
stamped  steel  corrugated  manhole  doors.  No  valves  or  cocks 
to  be  bolted  directly  on  to  the  boiler  shell,  but  be  secured 
either  to  solid  blocks,  as  in  Figs.  124  and  134,  or  to  short 
welded  steel  stand-pipes  riveted  on,  as  in  Fig-.  131.  The  very 
best  gauge-glass  mounting's  procurable,  preferably  asbestos 
packed,  should  only  be  used ;  and  where  they  require  pipes  as 
in  Pig.  125,  these  connections  should  be  of  copper  with  screw 


FIG.  139. 


BJORNSTAD'S  BLOW-OFF  COCK. 


FIG.  140. 


unions.  All  underfired  boilers  to  have  their  bottom  set  with 
a  fall  of  two  or  three  inches  to  a  chamber  to  receive  deposit 
for  the  blow-off  cock  or  valve.  If  perforated  pipes  lying-  on 
the  bottom  are  used  for  blow-off,  then  a  frequent  use  is 
required,  especially  before  raising-  steam,  to  remove  deposit 
thrown  down.  Spring-  or  dead  weight  safety  valves  to  be 
used  in  preference  to  those  with  levers,  which  latter  often 
vibrate  with  the  pulsation  of  the  steam  flow  to  the  engine. 
All  the  stop  valves  to  have  external  screws.  The  best  blow- 
off  cock  yet  invented  appears  to  be  the  one  shown  by  Figs. 
139  and  140,  which  has  the  following  characteristics:  There 
are  no  "ground"  surfaces  exposed  to  the  deposit  when  the 

(15) 


226  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

cock  is  shut,  consequently  when  it  is  opened  there  is  no  scor- 
ing* caused  to  make  it  leak.  It  can  be  packed  under  steam. 
The  key  cannot  be  withdrawn  until  the  cock  is  completely 
closed. 

Plenty  of  space  should  be  left  around  the  tubes  for  their 
examination  and  cleaning*.  Louvres  or  regulators  should  be 
fitted  to  the  doors,  to  regulate  the  supply  of  air  both  below 
and  above  the  fire.  The  fire  bars  to  be  specially  suited  for 
the  grade  of  coal  used  and  the  rate  of  consumption.  All  in- 
ternal furnaces  or  flues  to  be  strengthened  on  one  of  the 
systems  shown  in  Fig-.  129,  so  as  to  avoid  the  necessity  for 
heavy  plates,  and  the  risk  of  burning-  them. 

Above  all,  let  the  intending-  purchaser  beware  of  the 
44  great  economy  "  fiend  ;  and  (although  it  is  an  old  chestnut) 
it  \vill  be  well  for  him  not  to  forg-et  the  story  of  the  steam  user 
who  adopted  all  the  latest  improvements  offered  to  him,  and 
when  he  had  paid  all  the  bills  and  totted  up  what  had  been 
promised  (as  is  promised  every  day), he  obtained  the  following 
as  the  result  of  the  gross  saving-  to  be  expected  :  By  con- 
torted tubular  boiler,  20  per  cent ;  acrobatic  fire  bars,  10  per 
cent;  steam  dryer,  5  per  cent;  automatic  damper  regulator, 
5  per  cent;  patent  cut-off,  15  per  cent;  waterless  condenser, 
20  per  cent ;  economizer  and  feed  heater,  25  per  cent ;  purifier 
and  softener,  10  per  cent,  or  a  total  saving  of  110  per  cent. 
He  therefore  thought  he  should  be  burning  10  per  cent  less 
than  nothing,  and  his  coal  heap  should  be  getting  larger  ;  but 
somehow  or  other  he  found  the  coal  went  away  just  about  the 
same  as  before. 

Lying  open  on  the  table  as  this  is  being  written,  is  an 
advertisement,  in  a  highly  reputable  journal,  which  boldly 
undertakes  to  increase  the  efficiency  of  the  boiler  up  to  55 
per  cent  by  the  adoption  of  the  one  particular  device  offered. 
Now  where  things  are  so  bad  that  a  55  per  cent  improvement 
is  possible,  it  may  in  most  cases  be  taken  for  granted,  that 
all  the  saving  will  not  be  effected  by  one  piece  of  apparatus, 
but  will  probably  require  the  whole  steam  plant  remodeled  by 
a  competent  expert.  The  greater  economy  which  increased 
steam  pressures,  and  higher  grades  of  expansion  will  effect, 
are  shown  in  the  following  table,  which  gives  the  relative 
•quantity  of  coal  required  for  the  same  horse  power,  under 


UNIVERSITY 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


227 


different  steam  pressures  up  to  300  pounds  to  the  inch,  and 
with  grades  of  expansion  up  to  eight  fold.  It  must  not  be 
forgotten  that  180  pounds  of  steam  is  now  a  pressure  in 
common  use,  both  on  land  and  at  sea: — 

COMPARATIVE   WEIGHT    OF    COAL    REQUIRED    PER   HORSE    POWER 

PER  HOUR,   WITH  STEAM  PRESSURES    FROM  THIRTY   TO 

300   POUNDS  PER  SQUARE  INCH,    AND   GRADES 

OF   EXPANSION    FROM    0   TO    VH. 


e§ 

Grade  of  Expansion. 

If 

Oi/             i/ 
74                    /3 

3/3 

X 

% 

% 

X 

K 

Steam 
Pounds 
Inch. 

Weight  of  Coal  in  Pounds. 

30 

5.6 

4.93 

1 
3.95     3.81 

3.30 

2.84 

2.69 

2.35 

1.82 

35 

5.51 

4.84 

3.86  :  3.72 

3.21 

2.74 

2.60 

2.26 

1.73 

40 

5.46 

4.79 

3.81  |  3.67 

3.16 

2.70 

2.55 

2.21 

1.68 

45 

5.41 

4.73 

3.75     3.62 

3.11 

2.65 

2.50 

2.16 

1.62 

50 

5.36 

4.68 

3.71  1  3.57 

3.06 

2.60 

2.45 

2.11 

1.58 

55 

5.31 

4.63 

3.66 

3.51 

3.01 

2.55 

2.40 

2.06 

1.53 

60 

5.26 

4.59 

3.60 

3.47 

2.97 

2.50 

2.35 

2.02 

1.49 

65 

5.20 

4.55 

3.57 

3.43 

2.93 

2.46 

2.31 

1.98 

1.45 

70 

5.19 

4.52 

3.54 

3.40 

2.90 

2.43 

2.28 

1.94 

1.41 

75 

5.16 

4.49 

3.51 

3.37 

2.87 

3.40 

2.25 

1.91 

1.39 

80 

5.12 

4.45 

3.47 

3.33 

2.83 

2.36 

2.21 

1.88 

1.35 

85 

5.09 

4.42 

3.44 

3.30 

2.80 

2.33 

2.18 

1.85 

1.32 

90 

5.07 

4.39 

3.41      3.28 

2.'77 

2.31 

2.16 

1.82 

1.29 

95 

5.04 

4.37 

3.39 

3.25 

2.74 

2.28 

2.13 

1.79 

1.26 

100 

5.01 

4.34 

3.36 

3.23 

2.72 

2.26 

2.10 

1.77 

1.23 

105 

5.00 

4.32 

3.35      3.21 

2.70 

2.24 

2.09 

1.75 

1.22 

115 

4.98 

4.31 

3.33      3.19 

2.69 

2.22 

2.07 

1.73 

1.20 

125 

4.94 

4.27 

3.29      3.15 

2.65 

2.19 

2.03 

1.70 

1.17 

150 

4.81 

4.14 

3.16 

3.02 

2.52 

2.05 

1.90 

1.57 

1.04 

200 

4.70 

4.03 

3.05  I  2.91 

2.41 

1.94 

1.79 

1.46 

0.92 

250 

4.69 

3.93 

3.01      2.81 

2.31 

1.85 

1.70 

1.36 

0.83 

300 

4.54 

3.87 

2.89 

2.75 

2.24 

1.78 

1.62 

1.29 

0.75 

This  table  shows  that  with  the  low  pressure  of  thirty 
pounds  steam,  and  no  expansion,  as  was  common  many  years 
ago,  the  consumption  of  coal  would  be  double  that  required 
with  eighty-five  pounds  pressure  and  a  cut-off  at  half  stroke; 
and  further,  that  more  economy  can  be  obtained  by  increas- 
ing1 the  expansion  and  raising1  the  pressure,  until  the  con- 
sumption is  only  one-seventh  of  that  given  under  the  lowest 
conditions. 

After  having-  secured  a  good  boiler,  the  next  thing  is  to 
have  it  properly  set,  with  the  sectional  area  of  the  flues  so 


228  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

proportioned  for  the  volume  of  the  gases  to  be  carried  to  the 
chimney,  as  to  get  the  best  results  from  the  fuel.  Many 
arguments  are  being  put  forward  in  favor  of  a  mechanical 
draft,  urged  by  fans,  instead  of  having  the  natural  draft  of  a 
chimney,  and  some  of  them  are  very  specious.  It  would  be 
going  outside  the  general  scope  of  this  work  to  discuss  this 
question  in  detail,  and  it  may  be  left  with  the  remark  that  a 
tall  chimney  at  any  rate  carries  the  heated  waste  gases  away 
well  clear  of  the  factory,  which  the  short  stumpy  outlets 
much  advocated  by  some  engineers  certainly  do  not,  and  a 
chimney  certainly  wants  no  attention  in  comparison  with  a 
fan  or  exhauster. 

Having  the  boiler  set  with  double  side  walls,  and  the  top 
above  the  brick  work  encased  with  at  least  two  inches  of  good 
non-conducting  composition,  the  whole  setting  and  casing,  as 
well  as  the  house,  should  be  kept  scrupulously  clean  and 
white;  then  the  radiation  of  heat  will  be  reduced  to  a  min- 
imum. Black,  dirty  boilers,  and  settings  smothered  in  dust, 
with  dark  and  dirty  surroundings,  all  greatly  favor  the  radia- 
tion and  conduction  of  heat,  which  as  before  shown,  is 
specially  objectionable  in  an  ice  factory. 

In  connection  with  the  efficiency  of  engines  and  boilers, 
no  work  has  probably  ever  been  done  of  such  service  to  the 
general  steam  user  —  to  enable  him  to  see  where  the  losses 
really  occur — as  the  report  and  diagram  on  the  Louisville 
pumping  engines  recently  issued  by  a  committee  of  the  Insti- 
tute of  Civil  Engineers. 

This  celebrated  Leavitt  engine,  at  Louisville,  has  been 
described  in  the  transactions  of  the  American  Society  of 
Mechanical  Engineers.  Its  operations  have  since  been 
investigated  by  a  committee  of  the  English  society  appointed 
in  1896  to  establish  a  standard  for  comparing  and  judging 
the  thermal  efficiency  of  steam  engines,  and  has  resulted  in  a 
report,  and  the  diagram  reproduced  in  Fig.  141. 

This  figure  illustrates  the  flow  of  heat,  in  British  ther- 
mal units,  from  the  furnace  to  the  actual  brake  power 
exerted.  The  various  losses  or  leakages  by  radiation,  con- 
densation, and  so  on,  are  clearly  shown;  and  also  the  saving 
of  heat  again  picked  up,  as  by  the  economizer,  and  the  return 
of  hot  water  from  the  jackets. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


229 


230  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

The  heat  put  into  the  water  from  the  furnace  per  minute 
is  133,600  units,  and  that  represented  by  the  brake  power  is 
only  25,990  units,  or  say  19  per  cent;  that  lost  or  thrown 
away  in  the  condenser  alone  being-  110,240  units,  or  over  58 
per  cent.  The  radiation  from  the  boiler,  the  steam  pipes 
and  the  engine  is  comparatively  small,  and  the  flue  and  other 
losses  are  so  relatively  insignificant,  that  when  an  inventor 
comes  along  with  his  offer  of  50  per  cent  saving,  the  steam 
user  having  this  diagram  in  hand,  may  possibly  be  able  to 
tell  his  would-be  benefactor  that  he  is  professing  to  save  a 
great  deal  more  heat  or  power  than  is  actually  lost.  In  the 
Leavitt  engine,  221  units  per  minute  are  required  for  an  indi- 
cated horse  power,  which  in  an  ideal  engine  are  reduced 
to  148  units. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  231 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

ICE  PER  TON  OF   COAL. 

Looked  at  as  commercial  operations,  the  success,  or 
otherwise,  of  both  ice  manufacture  and  refrigeration  is  largely 
a  question  of  coal  consumption.  It  is  no  doubt  true  that 
instances  are  common  where  it  is  advisable  to  expend  a  little 
extra  money  on  fuel  rather  than  incur  the  additional  first 
cost  and  subsequent  up-keep  which  would  be  involved  in  the 
change  to  more  economical  machinery  and  highly  refined 
appliances.  At  the  same  time  it  really  does  seem — if  the 
records  are  true — that  many  ice  factories  are  altogether  more 
wasteful  in  the  use  of  fuel,  and  show  poorer  results,  than 
there  is  any  necessity  for. 

At  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Southern  Ice  Exchange  of 
the  United  States  held  at  St.  Louis  in  1898,  a  paper  was  read 
in  which  the  author,  Mr.  Sneddon,  gave  the  results  obtained 
by  him  from  twenty-seven  different  ice  factories.  These  are 
reproduced  in  the  table  on  the  following  page,  and  show  that 
the  water  evaporated,  or  ice  made,  per  pound  of  coal,  ranged 
from  8.22  pounds  in  the  best,  to  only  2.25  pounds  in  the 
worst  case.  This  in  itself  appears  a  very  wide  range  of  rela- 
tive efficiencies,  the  better  results  being  more  than  three 
and  one-half  times  as  much  as  the  poorer  ones,  and  it  is  made 
the  more  singular  from  the  fact  that  the  thermal  efficiency 
of  the  coal  used  for  the  smallest  evaporation  was  fully  equal 
to  that  used  for  the  highest. 

The  best  of  these  tabulated  cases,  however,  compares 
very  poorly  with  the  result  of  some  tests  which  were  made 
at  a  Bavarian  brewery  twelve  years  earlier,  and  are  recorded 
in  a  paper  read  by  the  managing  director  of  the  British  Linde 
Company  before  the  Institute  of  Mechanical  Engineers  in 


232 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


1886.  It  is  there  stated,  that  as  much  as  26.3  tons  of  ice  have 
been  made  for  the  ton  of  coal.  As  this  is  more  than  ten 
times  as  great  as  the  results  in  some  of  the  factories  referred 
to  by  Mr.  Sneddon,  and  as  it  is  impossible  that  the  difference 
in  climate,  and  temperature  of  condensing-  water,  can  be 
responsible  for  the  whole  of  such  great  discrepancies,  it  will 
perhaps  be  worth  while  to  look  a  little  deeper  into  this  ques- 
tion. There  is  no  serious  reason,  on  the  face  of  it,  why  some 
of  the  factories  in  the  list  should  not  at  least  treble  their  effi- 
ciency, with  fair  averag-e  plants  and  modern  methods. 

TABLE  OF    ICE  PLANT  EFFICIENCIES    COLLECTED    FROM 
TWENTY-SEVEN  EXISTING  AND  OPERATING  PLANTS  (  SNEDDON) 


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10,800 

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13,400 

2,261 

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5.7 

4,800 

11,400 

2.37 

13,400 

2,381 

17.7 

74.8 

7.25 

4,000 

14,500 

3.62 

12,200 

3,638 

29.8 

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15,000 

3.75 

12,200 

3,768 

30.8 

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20,660 

4.13 

14,858 

4,150 

27.9 

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5,000 

22,000 

3.93 

14,858 

3,949 

19.9 

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12,000 

28,000 

2.33 

12,700 

2,341 

18.4 

74.3 

14.5 

9,000 

29,000 

3.22 

11,900 

3,236 

27.2 

61.2 

16.5 

9,500 

33,  000 

3.47 

11,900 

3,488 

29.3 

58.0 

15.6 

9,600 

31,200 

3.25 

12,300 

3,266 

26.5 

62.2 

16.5 

11,200 

33,000 

2.94 

12,300 

2,954 

24. 

65.8 

20. 

12,000 

40,000 

3.33 

12,600 

3,346 

26.5 

62.2 

19. 

8,000 

38,000 

4.75 

12,200 

4,773 

39.1 

44.2 

14.5 

6,000 

29,000 

4.83 

12.200 

4,854 

39.8 

43.2 

17.5 

10,000 

35,000 

3.5 

12,000 

3,517 

29.3 

58.0 

17.66 

10,000 

35,320 

3.53 

12,  600 

3,547 

28.1 

60.0 

27.5 

13,500 

55.000 

4.07 

13,000 

4,090 

31.3 

55.3 

19. 

7,000 

38,000 

5.42 

12,200 

5,447 

44.6 

36.3 

20. 

6,000 

40,000 

6.66 

13,000 

6.693 

51.4 

26.6 

23. 

6,800 

46,000 

6.76 

13,000 

6,793 

52.2 

25.5 

24. 

7,000 

48,000 

6.85 

13,000 

6,884 

53.0 

25.8 

29. 

14,000 

58,000 

4.14 

12,000 

4,160 

34.6 

50.6 

25. 

18,000 

50,000 

2.77 

12,000 

2,783 

23.2 

66.9 

32. 

22,000 

64,000 

2.90 

12,000 

3,045 

25.3 

62.9 

31. 

14,000 

62,000 

4.42 

10,500 

4,442 

42.2 

39.8 

82. 

22,500 

164,000 

7.28 

13,100 

7,286 

55.6 

20.6 

85. 

20,740 

170,000 

8.22 

13,100 

8,261 

63.0 

10.0 

It   is   evident  that  the  plea,  "There  is  no  advantage  in 
having  an  expansive  eng-ine,  because  you  would  have  to  con- 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  233 

dense  live  steam  to  make  the  distilled  water  for  the  cans," 
does  not  apply  in  these  cases.  It  certainly  does  not  require 
specially  good  boilers  to  evaporate  six  and  three-fourths 
pounds  of  water  per  pound  of  coal,  considering-  that  eight  to 
nine  pounds  is  easily  attainable.  Taking-  the  moderate 
evaporation  of  six  and  three-fourths  pounds  only,  and  allow- 
ing one-third  of  it,  or  two  and  one-fourth  pounds,  for  waste 
in  condensation,  drainage,  etc.,  there  would  still  be  four  and 
one-half  pounds  left  to  make  ice  from,  or  double  the  amount 
actually  yielded  by  the  plant. 

In  making  ice  there  are  so  many  minor  losses  from  radia- 
tion, conduction,  thawing  out,  and  so  on,  which  aifect  the 
ultimate  result,  that  it  makes  it  exceedingly  difficult  to  calcu- 
late from  theoretical  data  before-hand,  what  the  production  of 
a  new  plant  will  come  up  to.  The  practical  man  who  has  rule- 
of-thumb  notes,  deduced  from  the  working  of  similar  plants 
under  varying  conditions,  will  probably  get  nearer  to  the  mark 
than  the  engineer  who  calculates  everything  on  a  scientific 
basis  alone. 

The  main  factors  which  are  concerned  in  the  question  of 
maximum  ice  for  minimum  coal  versus  minimum  ice  for  max- 
imum coal,  are  as  follows: — 

First. — There  is  the  thermal  efficiency  of  the  coal  itself, 
which  may  range  from  10,000  to  15,000  units  in  a  pound,  and 
the  efficiency  of  the  boiler  as  a  machine.  Although  the  best 
coals  are  theoretically  equivalent  to  fifteen  pounds  of  water 
from  212°,  the  highest  evaporation  in  actual  practice  does  not 
much  exceed  ten  pounds  of  water  per  pound  of  coal,*  while 
seven  pounds  is  a  low  result.  It  will  be  a  fair  thing  to  as- 
sume eight  and  one-half  pounds  as  a  fair  average  evaporation 
attainable  in  an  ordinary  factory. 

Secondly. — There  is  the  efficiency  of  the  steam  engine 
in  terms  of  the  weight  of  steam  consumed.  The  very 
highest  result  so  far  published,  appears  to  have  been  attained 
by  an  experimental  quadruple-expansion  engine  at  the  Cor- 
nell University,  with  a  boiler  pressure  of  500  pounds  to  the 
square  inch,  and  a  record  of  ten  pounds  of  steam  per  horse- 

*See  reference  to  boiler,  Fig-.  135,  page  219,  result  of  trial. 


234  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION, 

power-hour.  Nothing-  like  this  is  possible  in  actual  work  at 
present,  and  the  very  best  marine  engines  probably  do  not 
use  less  than  thirteen  pounds,  even  when  working-  with 
triple  expansion  and  an  initial  pressure  of  200  pounds  of 
steam.  The  following-  is  perhaps  a  fair  averag-e  of  steam 
consumption  in  commercial,  as  disting-uished  from  experi- 
mental, engines: — 

Pounds  of  steam  per 
horse  power  per  hour. 

Condensing-,  quadruple  and  triple  expansion..  14  to  16  Ibs. 

Condensing-,  compound 16  to  24  Ibs. 

Non-condensing,  compound  or  expansion 20  to  30  Ibs. 

Condensing-,  low  pressure 30  to  40  Ibs. 

Non-condensing,  low  pressure 40  to  60  Ibs. 

If  a  plant  of  machinery  is  intended  for  refrigeration  only, 
and  distilled  water  is  not  required,  there  are  no  absolute 
reasons  why  the  steam  engine  supplying-  the  power  should 
not  have  a  surface  condenser,  and  if  on  shipboard,  be  worked 
at  the  same  pressure,  and  with  the  same  degree  of  economy, 
as  the  main  engines.  In  such  case  an  indicated  horse  power 
might  be  obtained  by  the  expenditure  of  from  1.5  to  1.7 
pounds  of  coal. 

When  however  distilled  water  must  be  had  in  order  to 
make  clear,  crystal,  can  ice,  it  will  be  better  to  work  the 
engines  non-condensing,  and  with  a  backpressure,  under  one 
of  the  two  systems  to  be  presently  described,  and  to  use  a 
high  initial  steam  pressure  with  a  high  grade  of  expansion, 
preferably  in  a  compound  or  triple  expansion  engine. 
Although  the  increased  range  of  temperatures  due  to  a 
vacuum  will  be  sacrificed  so  far  as  the  engine  is  concerned, 
by  not  expanding  down  below  atmospheric  pressure,  there 
will  be  no  difficulty  even  then  in  getting  an  indicated  horse 
power  with  twenty-five  pounds  of  steam  per  hour.  The  con- 
denser and  vacuum,  as  will  be  seen  later  on,  can  be  turned  to* 
better  account  than  simply  to  increase  the  power  of  the 
engine. 

Thirdly. — There  is  the  efficiency  of  the  compressor  as 
a  complete  machine,  or  the  ratio  which  the  indicated  horse 
powers  of  the  steam  cylinder,  and  the  compressor,  bear  to 
one  another.  The  following  table  has  been  collated  from  the 
several  examples  therein  quoted,  and  it  shows  that  the  frac- 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


235 


tional  losses  in  such   machines  range   between  12  per  cent 
and  33  per  cent  of  the  total  engine  power: — 


Authority  or  source  of  the 
information. 

1 

0 

fc£ 

II 

W 

Horse  power  of  the 
compressor. 

Ratio  of  compressor 
to  engine  power,  per 
centum. 

Friction  or  loss  in 
terms  of  the  enjrine 
power,  per  centum. 

Friction  or  loss  in 
terms  of  the  com- 
pressor, per  centum. 

Mr.  A.  Siebert    in  Ice  and 

25  % 

33  % 

RcfTi&efcition    for    Janu- 

to 

to 

ary,  1899  

33  % 

50  % 

Diagrams    illustrating") 
their  machines  from  the  ' 
De   La     Vergne    cata-  f 
logue                                 .  J 

63.0 

48.0 

76.1# 

23.  9  # 

31.4$, 

Bavarian  brewery  in  1886. 

53 

38 

71.7 

28.3 

39.4 

Comparative  trials  in  1890, 
Linde     and   Pictet    ma- 
chines — 
Average  of  four  Pictet. 

79.3 

20.7 

26.1 

Best  Pictet  trial 

81  1 

12  9 

14  8 

Average  of  four  Linde 

83  4 

16  6 

19  9 

Best  Linde  trial 

87  9 

12  1 

13  7 

"Eclipse"  machines  — 
Frick  Co.  's  Red  Book  ) 
illustrations                C 

60.3 

51.6 

83 

17 

20.4 

"Case"  machine  from  the  \ 
company's   book                f 

63.9 

56.5 

88 

12 

13.6 

Case  Co.  's  guarantee  

87 

13.04 

15 

Fair  average  to  assume  ) 
with  a  good  design  and  > 
the  best  workmanship.  ) 

100 

83.3 

83.3 

16.6 

20 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing  table  that  the  highest 
efficiency  is  obtained  with  a  machine  which  has  its  steam 
and  ammonia  cylinders  connected  up  in  a  straight  line,  fully 
supporting  what  was  said  in  previous  chapters,  as  to  fric- 
tional  losses  by  round-about  connections.  The  makers  of 


236  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

this  machine  guarantee  that  their  engine  power  will  not 
exceed  the  compressor  power  by  more  than  15  per  cent. 
It  will  leave  a  considerable  margin,  if  in  considering"  the 
whole  question  of  efficiency,  we  assume  the  indicated  engine 
horse  power  in  a  new  plant  at  20  per  cent  in  excess  of  that 
of  the  compressor. 

Fourthly. — There  is  the  efficiency  of  the  compressor  itself 
considered  as  a  pump,  which  may  vary  between  very  wide 
limits.  In  the  year  1878,  the  writer  designed  the  compress- 
ors, reservoirs,  and  reducing  valves,  that  have  been  success- 
fully used  ever  since  that  date,  for  lighting  the  cars  on  the 
New  South  Wales  railways  with  gas.  The  original 
machinery  was  all  made  in  Sydney,  and  the  pressure  was 
intended  to  range  between  120  and  180  pounds.  A  large 
imported  compressor  was  subsequently  put  to  work,  which, 
when  tested  by  him,  was  found  to  deliver  only  about  one- 
half  of  its  theoretical  capacity,  the  defects  being  due  prob- 
ably to  small  valves,  too  large  clearance,  and  the  great  heat 
generated. 

Although  some  makers  claim  98  per  cent  efficiency  for 
their  own  manufactures,  such  machines  will  be  very  effective, 
and  have  small  clearance,  if  they  can  be  kept  so  cool  as  to 
pump  95  per  cent  of  their  theoretical  volume  from  the  refrig- 
erator. Unless  frozen  well  back,  90  per  cent  would  probably 
be  nearer  to  the  average  effect  obtained. 

Then  there  is — Fifthly. — The  height  which  the  abstracted 
heat  has  to  be  lifted  from  the  temperature  in  the  refrigerator, 
in  order  that  it  may  be  carried  away  by  the  condensing  water. 

From  Munich  to  Central  Australia  is  a  far  cry,  and  these 
places  present  very  different  conditions  for  the  ice  maker  to 
study.  In  the  records  of  the  Munich  experiments  the  tem- 
peratures of  the  condensing  water  are  given  as  : — 

At  entrance     49°         49°         48°         48°         Fah. 
At  exit  67°         67°         49°         67° 

In  a  machine  designed  by  the  writer  for  an  East  Indian 
city  it  was  stipulated  among  other  conditions  of  the  trial,  that 
the  average  atmospheric  temperature  was  to  be  95°  and  the 
water  90°.  In  some  towns  in  Australia,  such  as  Bourke,  out 
west  (where  the  crust  of  the  earth  is  said  to  be  very  thin 
between  the  people  and  the  place  below  where  there  is  no 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  237 

ice),  the  summer  heat  is  often  120°  in  the  shade  for  long- 
periods  tog-ether. 

As  far  as  the  time  required  for  freezing-  the  blocks  of  ice 
is  concerned,  the  brine  mig-ht  be  kept  at  the  same  tempera- 
ture at  these  two  places  having  such  extremes  of  climate, 
but  with  40°  difference  in  the  surrounding's,  the  greater 
leakag-e  of  heat  through  the  insulated  walls  of  the  tank  would 
cause  a  much  more  serious  loss  in  the  hot  climate.  Further, 
the  greater  tendency  of  the  ice  to  thaw  when  drawn  from  the 
cans  might  be  an  inducement  to  freeze  colder  in  the  hot  than 
in  the  cool  city.  Such  conditions  would  widen  the  disparity 
in  the  relative  efficiencies  of  the  two  plants,  when  measured 
by  the  weight  of  ice  produced  for  sale  at  such  widely  sepa- 
rated localities,  from  a  given  weight  of  fuel. 

In  order  to  make  a  comparison  of  the  relative  work 
required  to  make  ice  in  the  two  cases,  we  may  omit  the  latter 
considerations  and  take  a  back  pressure  of  twentv-four 
pounds  (gauge)  or  thirty-nine  pounds  (absolute)  in  both  cli- 
mates, with  a  condenser  temperature  of  65C  in  Bavaria  and 
of  105C  in  Central  Australia,  the  gauge  pressures  being  103 
pounds  and  218  pounds  respectively.  The  table  on  following 
page  gives  the  volume  of  gas  required  to  be  pumped  per 
minute  in  cubic  feet  to  produce  one  ton  of  refrigeration,  and 
for  purposes  of  comparison  these  quantities  will  be  doubled 
as  is  usual  to  give  the  amount  per  ton  of  ice.  This  leaves  a 
considerable  margin  for  waste,  and  much  more  in  the  case  of 
the  cold  climate,  because  forty  more  thermal  units  have  to  be 
abstracted  to  make  ice  from  water  at  90°  than  from  water  at 
50°,  while  the  melting  of  a  ton  of  ice  represents  an  absolute 
quantity  of  heat  or  work  in  any  climate. 

The  table  under  column  headed  24  (as  the  gauge 
suction  pressure)  shows,  that  with  a  terminal  pressure 
of  103  pounds  to  the  inch,  the  gas  required  to  be  with- 
drawn from  the  refrigerator  will  be  2.87  cubic  feet  per 
minute  per  ton  of  refrigeration;  and  with  218  pounds  ter- 
minal pressure,  then  3.12  cubic  feet  per  minute  must  be 
withdrawn. 

Now  by  plotting  the  isothermal  and  adiabatic  lines  of 
compression,  from  thirty-nine  pounds  to  118  pounds  abso- 
lute pressures,  to  represent  the  work  in  a  cool  climate,  and 


238 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


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temperatures  in 
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MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


239 


from  thirty-nine  to  233  pounds,  for  the  requirements  of 
nearly  tropical  surroundings,  the  following-  Fig-.  No.  142  is 
the  result. 

We  find  from  the  above  that  the  mean  pressures  during 
compression  are  forty-seven  pounds  and  78.5  pounds  under 
the  two  different  conditions.  Now  78.5  poundsX144  inches= 
11,304  foot-pounds  as  the  amount  of  work  required  to  com- 
press one  cubic  foot  of  gas,  and  11,304X3.12  cubic  feet  gives 
35,268  foot-pounds  per  minute  as  the  work  for  one  ton  of  re- 


Cfnfrj/  £aro/ie  dnaf  Ce/ifrj/  di/ 
DIAGRAM    or  COMPARATIVE  PRESSURES  «o  WORK 
i/ncfer  £xtremes    of  C/im<tte 


FlG.   142. — THE    WORK    OF    AN    AMMONIA    COMPRESSOR   AS   AFFECTED   BY 
CLIMATIC    CONDITIONS. 

frigeration  in  twenty-four  hours;  which  divided  by  33,000 
gives  the  horse  power  of  the  compressor.  Similarly,  47 
poundsX144  inches=6,768  foot-pounds,  which  multiplied  by 
the  2.87  cubic  feet  required,  gives  19,424  total  foot-pounds  of 
work,  necessary  at  the  lower  temperature  of  condenser,  per 

19,424X35,268 
minute  per  ton  of  refrigeration.   Then—       — - —      —  =27,346 

as  the  power  required  for  a  mean  between  the  two  extremes 
of  climate. 


240 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  241 

Let  27,346  foot-pounds  per  minute  in  the  compressor 
under  a  mean  temperature  be  the  equivalent  to  one  ton  of  re- 
frigeration, and  doubling"  the  same,  take  54,692  foot-pounds 
as  equal  to  the  work  of  making-  one  ton  of  ice ;  then  adding  20 
per  cent  for  frictional  losses,  we  get  65,630  foot-pounds  per 
minute  as  the  \vork  of  the  engine,  which  divided  by  33,000 
gives  two  horse  power,  very  nearly,  to  make  one  ton  of  ice 
under  the  mean  of  the  two  climates. 

Going  back  to  the  hottest  condenser  again  and  taking 
35,268  foot-pounds  of  work  in  the  compressor  per  ton  of  re- 
frigeration (instead  of  27,346,  the  mean  of  the  two  climates), 
then  35,268  X  2  +  20  per  cent  =  84,643  foot-pounds,  and 

—^2.56  horse  power  per  ton  of  ice  required  for  the  hot 
33,000 

climate.  In  the  trade  lists  of  a  number  of  leading  manu- 
facturers of  refrigerating  machinery  it  will  be  found  that 
about  2.3  horse  power  per  ton  of  ice  is  set  down  as  the  power 
of  the  engine,  and  as  it  is  deduced  from  experience,  it  is 
probably  a  very  fair  average. 

Now  2.3  horse  power,  consuming  twenty-five  pounds 
of  steam  per  horse  power  per  hour,  only  amounts  to 
25  X  2.3  X  24  — 1,380  pounds  of  water  a  day;  but  a  ton  of  ice 
(American )— 2,000  pounds,  about  half  as  much  again,  and 
this  is  apart  from  waste.  Therefore  if  the  ice  is  to  be  made 
from  distilled  water,  that  taken  from  the  exhaust  of  the 
engine  would  be  insufficient,  and  it  would  be  necessary  to 
provide  boilers  (as  usually  recommended  by  builders)  at 
least  50  per  cent  greater  horse  power  than  the  engines,  and 
condense  the  live  steam.  Adding  one-half  more  to  1,380 
pounds  (or  690)  gives  2,370  pounds  evaporation  required 
from  the  boiler  for  each  ton  of  ice,  and  this  leaves  a  fair 
margin  for  loss  and  waste  in  filling  molds.  Where  how- 
ever there  is  an  engine  very  wasteful  of  steam,  the  exhaust 
alone  may  be  depended  upon  for  supplying  the  distilled 
water  to  make  clear  ice. 

Fig.  143  shows  one  of  the  utterly  unscientific  and  dirty 
ways  in  which  this  process  is  usually  carried  out;  and  as  it 
represents  in  the  main  an  outfit  designed  by  the  writer  him- 
self, it  is  to  be  hoped  that  makers  who  supply  similar  plants 

(16) 


242  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

will  not  feel  hurt  at  its  being1  spoken  of  in  such  terms  of  dis- 
paragement. 

This  figure  being"  intended  to  illustrate  the  several  pro- 
cesses carried  on  generally,  rather  than  the  relative  pro- 
portions of  the  various  vessels  (concerning  which  great 
diversity  of  opinion  exists),  it  is  not  drawn  to  scale  as  a 
working  drawing. 

As  a  typical  representation  of  a  very  common  class  of 
plant  for  producing  distilled  water  for  ice  making,  the  ope- 
ration of  its  various  parts  to  that  end  may  be  traced.  First, 
the  boiler.  This  is  generally  supplied  with  unfiltered  water, 
and  primes  more  or  less,  carrying  dirty  particles  over  into 
the  engine.  Sometimes  there  are  constituents  in  the  water 
which  give  off  gases  as  its  temperature  is  raised,  and  such 
gases  pass  into  the  engine  with  the  steam. 

In  the  engine,  the  steam  meets  with  the  oil  which  is  used 
to  lubricate  the  cylinder;  and  often,  owing  to  poor  workman- 
ship, bad  alignment,  rough  boring,  and  strong  springs  in  the 
piston  rings,  a  great  deal  more  oil  is  used  than  would  be 
otherwise  necessary,  and  the  cylinder  and  piston  are  gradu- 
ally ground  away.  As  a  result  the  impure  steam,  the  oil,  the 
abraded  iron  from  the  compressor,  and  other  foreign  mat- 
ters from  the  boiler,  all  form  a  delightful  composition  (!)  which 
passes  off  by  the  exhaust  pipe,  to  be  converted  into  pure  (?) 
distilled  water  for  the  ice  cans. 

The  first  process  to  which  this  exhaust  is  subjected,  is 
intended  to  get  rid  of  the  heavier  matters  and  the  grease, 
and  an  apparatus  for  this  purpose  is  shown  on  the  figure  as 
the  grease  separator.  So  many  of  these  appliances  are  now 
on  the  market — being  illustrated  in  the  current  engineering 
journals — that  it  is  not  necessary  to  describe  any  particular 
one  in  detail,  but  as  the  separator  in  the  figure  is  shown  with 
a  door,  which  is  not  common,  it  may  be  explained  that  such 
arrangement  facilitates  the  employment  of  coke  or  pumice,  if 
any  such  material  is  used  to  absorb  and  take  up  greasy  mat- 
ters in  addition  to  the  ordinary  deflectors,  whether  spiral  or 
otherwise,  which  are  used  to  precipitate  them. 

Flowing  upward,  the  exhaust  steam  (which  is  kept  at  a 
slight  back  pressure  by  a  loaded  valve  on  the  summit  of  the 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  243 

main  pipe)  is  further  cleansed  by  the  two  vessels  called 
steam  purifiers. 

The  main  central  pipe  has  a  by-pass  valve  between  the 
inlet  and  outlets,  by  shutting  which  either  one  or  both  puri- 
fiers can  be  used,  and  by  means  of  the  inlet  and  outlet  valves, 
one  purifier  at  a  time  can  be  cut  out  for  cleaning. 

Whether  cut  straw,  coke,  pumice,  broken  bricks,  or  any 
other  special  material  is  used  to  take  up  the  impurities 
depends  largely  upon  the  experience  of  the  makers  of  the 
plant,  or  the  man  in  charge  after  the  makers  have  handed  it 
over.  After  this  process  the  steam  is  supposed  to  be  clean 
enough  to  be  condensed. 

The  condenser  seen  on  the  figure,  which  has  the  diam- 
eters of  the  pipes  tapering  down  as  in  the  worm  of  a  spirit 
still,  must  not  be  taken  as  illustrating  ordinary  ice  making 
practice.  The  form  of  this  condenser,  and  whether  it  is 
atmospheric  or  submerged,  depends  upon  the  special  circum- 
stances of  the  case,  and  although  the  tapering  pipes  are 
theoretically  correct,  equal  efficiency  can  be  attained  with 
ordinary  tubes  at  less  cost. 

In  any  large  installation  of  machinery  using  a  steam 
engine,  an  exhaust  steam  feed  water  heater  should  certainly 
be  interposed  on  the  feed  pipe  between  the  feed  pump  and 
the  boiler,  because  it  effects  a  double  economy.  In  the  first 
place  by  imparting  heat  to  the  feed  water,  coal  is  saved;  and 
secondly,  by  abstracting  heat  from  the  steam,  and  condens- 
ing some  of  it  in  the  heater,  water  is  saved,  as  less  condensing 
water  is  required  to  abstract  heat  at  the  condenser.  )'  Figs. 
144  and  145  show  a  feed  wrater  heater  (a  modification  of  the 
well  known  "Berryman"  type)  as  designed  by  the  author  for 
use  with  very  bad  mineral  water. 

There  are  several  features  in  this  design  which  dis- 
tinguish it  from  ordinary  feed  water  heaters;  first  there  is 
the  connection  of  every  copper  tube  to  the  tube  plate  by  gun 
metal  "unions"  in  such  a  way  that  each  "U"  tube  can  be 
separately  removed  for  getting  at  the  deposit  and  scaling; 
and  further,  all  the  steam  and  feed  branches  are  kept  abso- 
lutely clear  of  the  "dome."  By  this  arrangement  the  outer 
casing  or  dome  can  be  lifted  at  any  time  by  using  the  by- 
pass valves  and  the  interior  be  thoroughly  examined  and 


244 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


FlG.  144. — SECTION  OF  FEED  WATER  HEATER    ON    LINE    A  B    OF    FlG.  145, 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


245 


cleaned,  without  it  being-  necessary  to  disconnect  a  single 
joint  of  either  the  exhaust  or  feed  pipes.  The  outlet  branch 
to  the  boiler  has  an  internal  stand  pipe,  so  that  the  heated 
water  is  taken  from  near  the  top  of  the  vessel  and  a  thorough 
circulation  insured. 

In  some  cases  the  earthy  deposit  from  bad  water  can  be 
thrown  down  at  the  boiler  temperature,  without  evaporation; 
in  such  cases  a  "live"  steam  feed  water  heater  such  as  Figs. 
146  and  147  will  enable  the  same  to  be  intercepted  before  the 
water  reaches  the  boiler.  At  the  same  time  the  heating  of 


FlG.    145. — PLAN    OF    FEED   WATER    HEATER. 

the  feed  will  improve  the  circulation  and  through  that  the 
evaporative  efficiency  of  the  boiler.  The  condensation  of 
steam  in  the  coils  of  this  apparatus  produces  distilled  water, 
which  can  either  be  returned  to  the  boiler  by  gravitation,  or 
be  used  for  the  ice  molds.  These  feed  heaters  are  not  shown 
on  Fig.  143,  because  they  are  not  essential  to  the  purification 
of  the  exhaust  steam,  and  the  producing  of  distilled  water. 

While  the  exhaust  steam  feed  heater  is  essential  to 
every  plant  with  a  pretense  to  economy,  the  supplemental 
live  steam  heater  has  a  more  efficient  substitute,  so  far  as 


246 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


economy  is  concerned,  in  an  "economizer  "  placed  in  the 
flues  in  order  to  heat  the  feed  water  circulating-  through  its 
tubes  by  the  waste  gases  of  combustion  on  their  way  from 
the  boiler  to  the  chimney. 

Coining   back    to   the   ice   factory    which  we  left  at  the 
worm  or  condenser,  the  distilled  water  from  the  exhaust  at 


FlGS.    146  AND    147. — LIVE    STEAM    FEED    WATER    HEATER. 

the  tail  pipe  is  never  absolutely  pure,  and  may  carry  with  it 
oily  particles  which  have  been  vaporized  and  again  condensed. 
It  is  therefore  a  very  common  practice  to  again  boil  up  this 
distillate  in  a  vessel  called  a  "skimmer,"  which  is  provided 
with  a  circular  lip  at  the  water  level,  over  which  the  lighter 
matters  flow  into  an  annular  channel,  as  they  rise  to  the 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  247 

surface.  The  water  can  be  kept  in  ebullition  by  a  small  steam 
coil  in  the  bottom  of  the  vessel. 

As  this  process  does  not  always  get  rid  of  all  the  air, 
which  is  the  main  cause  of  the  cloudy  appearance  of  can  ice, 
or  of  other  gases  that  may  have  an  affinity  for  the  water,  it 
is  next  passed  to  the  "  re-boiler,"  which  is  shown  as  a  very 
tall  vessel.  This  piece  of  apparatus,  like  the  skimmer,  has  a 
steam  coil  in  the  bottom  to  maintain  the  water  in  ebullition; 
and  it  is  a  matter  of  strong-  faith  with  some  engineers, 
although  the  opinion  does  not  seem  to  be  a  general  one,  that 
the  height  or  depth  of  this  vessel,  and  the  consequent  addi- 
tional pressure  on  the  water  in  the  bottom  of  the  same,  is  a 
great  factor  towards  securing-  the  expulsion  of  the  air. 

From  near  the  bottom  of  the  re-boiler  the  "solid" 
de-aerated  water  passes,  hot  as  it  is,  to  the  bottom  of  the  hot 
filter,  and  by  an  upward  flow  is  further  purified. 

There  is  room  for  so  much  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the 
methods  and  materials  of  these  filters  that  no  opinion  can  be 
given  as  to  the  best  for  all  cases.  What  may  be  best  in  one 
country  might  not  be  obtainable  easily  in  another  place.  In 
many  places  silica  is  used  for  the  hot  filter. 

From  the  upper  part  of  the  hot  filter  the  distilled  and 
filtered  water  ascends  through  the  coils  of  a  condenser  or 
cooler,  often  parting  with  its  heat  to  water  which  has  already 
done  duty  on  the  ammonia  condenser.  It  is  then  passed 
through  the  cold  filter  and  after  such  second  filtration  it  is 
ready  for  the  fore-cooler.  The  cold  filter  is  generally  a  char- 
coal filter,  and  where  the  maple  grows  the  charcoal  made 
therefrom  has  a  great  reputation.  The  whole  theory  of  fil- 
ters seems  to  be  now  in  a  transition  state,  and  many  authori- 
ties hold  that  a  large  proportion  of  them  actually  contaminate 
the  water  that  passes  through  them  by  favoring  the  develop- 
ment of  the  microbe;  one  thing  seems  to  be  certain,  apart 
from  first  cost  the  "Pasteur"  porcelain  filter  is  the  best  and 
most  effective  for  securing  a  high  degree  of  purification. 

As  this  work  is  devoted  rather  to  the  machinery  of 
refrigeration,  than  to  a  discussion  on  debatable  points  in  the 
methods  usually  followed  in  operating  it,  no  general  opinion 
can  be  given  as  to  the  saving  of  power  or  otherwise,  that  is 
effected  by  the  introduction  of  a  fore-cooler  to  bring  the  dis- 


248  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

tilled  water  down  towards  the  freezing-  point  before  filling 
the  ice  cans  with  it.  From  a  purely  thermo-dyiiamic  aspect 
it  may  be  argued  perhaps,  that  there  can  be  no  saving  of 
power  in  such  an  operation,  and  that  more  surface  in  the 
refrigerator  coils  would  enable  the  same  amount  of  heat  to 
be  transferred  from  the  water  to  the  ammonia  through  the 
intervention  of  the  brine.  And  further,  it  may  be  held  that 
even  admitting  you  can  raise  the  ammonia  to  a  higher  tem- 
perature in  the  coils  of  the  fore-cooler  than  you  could  do  in 
the  refrigerating  coils,  you  at  the  same  time  increase  the 
volume  of  the  gas  the  compressor  has  to  handle,  and  so  neu- 
tralize all  the  supposed  gain. 

Leaving  the  question  whether  power  is  saved  by  use  of 
the  fore-cooler  or  not,  it  is  certain  that  the  distilled  purified 
and  de-aerated  water  from  the  cold  filter  is  prepared  to  take 
up  air  from  the  atmosphere  above  its  surface,  just  as  dry 
air  would  take  up  water  when  the  two  are  exposed  each  to 
the  other's  influence;  and,  as  air  and  water  have  not  the  same 
affinity  for  one  another  at  low  temperatures,  there  may  be 
incidental  advantages  in  cooling  the  water  as  low  as  possible, 
short  of  freezing,  directly  it  leaves  the  cold  filter. 

Although  no  "lagging"  is  shown  on  the  fore-cooler,  it 
should  in  practice  be  carefully  insulated  to  prevent  the 
infiltration  of  heat.  From  this  vessel  the  chilled  water 
passes  through  a  filter  of  sponges  to  remove  the  last  traces 
of  foreign  matter,  for  dirt  and  dust  will  get  into  the  fore- 
cooler  tank  in  spite  of  a  good  cover.  The  writer  was  once 
told  by  an  Australian  ice  man,  who  had  a  high  reputation  for 
his  pure  crystal  blocks,  that  he  attributed  his  uniform  and 
successful  quality  largely  to  the  fact  that  he  personally 
looked  to  the  cleaning  of  his  sponges  every  morning.  These 
filters  being  in  duplicate,  one  can  be  cleaned  at  a  time  with- 
out disturbing  the  continuity  of  the  operations  in  the  filling 
of  the  cans. 

In  some  ice  plants  the  return  gas  pipe  from  the  refrig- 
erator coils  to  the  suction  branch  of  the  compressor  (which 
in  the  illustration,  Fig.  143,  is  shown  in  series  with  the  coil 
of  the  fore-cooler  tank)  is  also  passed  through  another 
exchanger,  for  the  purpose  of  cooling  the  liquid  ammonia 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  249 

from  the  condenser  on  its  way  to  the  expansion  valve  and  the 
refrigerator  coils. 

By  this  device  colder  liquid  goes  to  the  refrigerator  to 
be  evaporated,  and  is  thus  able  to  take  up  more  heat,  and 
warmer  gas  goes  to  the  compressor.  When  the  writer  first 
saw  this  plan  in  operation  in  Australia  about  the  year  1882 
he  wrote  and  asked  for  an  opinion  about  it,  to  the  chief  engi- 
neer of  a  large  New  York  refrigerating  machine  companv, 
which  professed  at  the  time  to  have  the  largest  experience  in 
the  business  in  the  world,  and  to  be  the  makers  of  the  greatest 
number  of  machines.  The  answer  was,  "  You  might  as  well 
try  to  lift  yourself  by  your  boot-straps  as  to  try  and  do  any 
good  that  way."  This  not  very  encouraging  reply,  or 
rebuke,  did  not  hurt  anybody's  feelings,  and  was  not  taken 
as  a  "  settler  "  even  if  it  was  so  meant.  The  fact  is,  tugging 
at  boot-straps  may  set  your  boots  more  comfortably  on  your 
feet,  and  do  good  that  way,  even  if  it  does  not  enable  you  to 
lift  yourself  off  the  ground.  It  is  not  always  the  cock-sure 
man  that  knows  the  most. 

Proposals  which  come  under  the  "  Robbing  Peter  to  pay 
Paul  "  category  may  be  derided  by  people  who,  having  some 
practical  experience,  and  a  casual  acquaintance  with  theory, 
think  they  know  everything;  but  as  it  is  only  forty  years 
since  the  writer  was  first  introduced  to  refrigerating 
machinery,  he  is  fully  awrare  that  there  is  a  great  deal  yet  for 
him  to  learn.  Therefore  he  will  refrain  from  expressing 
any  definite  opinion  as  to  the  absolute  advantages  which 
attend  the  use  of  either  the  fore-cooler  for  the  ice  water  or 
the  temperature  exchanger  for  the  liquid  ammonia.  It 
should  not  be  forgotten  that  there  are  often  incidental 
advantages  in  doing  what  may  prima  facie  be  looked  upon 
as  useless.  Even  by  taking  money  out  of  one  pocket  and 
putting  into  another,  a  man  may  so  alter  his  balance  as  to  be 
enabled  to  walk  more  upright  in  the  sight  of  his  fellow  men. 

So  far  the  ordinary  process  of  treating  water  for  can  ice 
making  has  been  described  as  far  as  the  sponge  filters;  from 
these  a  hose,  terminating  in  a  small  apparatus  called  a  can 
filler,  enables  the  ice  molds  to  be  filled  to  a  uniform  depth 
with  the  minimum  of  attention.  It  is  important  that  this 
water  should  run  into  the  cans  without  any  agitation  which 


250 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


would  assist  it  to  re-absorb  air.  The  filler  therefore  delivers 
it  at  the  bottom  of  the  can,  the  water  rising-  slowly  and 
steadily  around  until  the  supply  is  cut  off  automatically  at 
the  right  point. 

The  can  filler  is  a  branch  pipe  on  the  end  of  the  hose, 
made  preferably  of  tinned  copper,  and  of  sufficient  length  to 
reach  to  the  bottom  of  the  ice  mold.  In  the  type  shown  by 
Fig-.  148  the  attendant  opens  a  valve  at  the  bottom  by  press- 
ing-a  small  thumb  lever  that  is  retained  by  a  catch;  when  the 
water  rises  to  the  adjusted  heig-ht,  a  float  sliding-  on  the  main 
pipe  rising"  also,  releases  the  catch,  and  the  valve  closes.  In 


FIG.  148. 


FIG.  149.  FIG.  150. 

AUTOMATIC  CAN  FILLERS  FOR  ICE  MOLDS. 


the  type  shown  by  Fig-.  149,  the  weig-ht  of  the  pipe  resting1  on 
the  bottom  of  the  can,  forces  up  the  valve  and  allows  the  can 
to  fill.  The  float  being-  fixed  to  the  pipe,  lifts  it  up  bodily 
when  the  water  rises,  and  allows  the  valve  to  close  and  shut 
off  the  supply.  Fig-.  150  shows  an  Australian  filler  with  a 
telescope  pipe  to  suit  different  depths  of  cans. 

The  bottom  has  a  bird  fountain  arrang-ement,  to  retain 
the  water  in  the  pipe  when  it  is  lifted  out  of  the  can,  and  the 
upper  part  has  a  free  working-  ball-cock,  retained  by  a  catch, 
that  shuts  off  the  water  when  the  can  is  full. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  251 

Under  the  system  of  distillation  so  far  described,  the 
quantity  of  distilled  water  produced,  is  strictly  limited  by 
the  weight  of  steam  used  by  the  engine;  which,  as  shown  on 
page  241  need  not  be  more  than  1,380  pounds  for  every  2,000 
pounds  of  ice  made.  It  is  therefore  usual  to  evaporate  an 
additional  50  per  cent  of  water  by  an  expenditure  of  so  much 
extra  coal,  and  then  condense  the  live  steam  produced,  with- 
out obtaining-  any  work  from  it.  It  will  also  be  noted 
that  the  dirty  and  greasy  steam  obtained  from  the  exhaust 
of  the  engine  has  to  undergo  at  least  eight  separate  treat- 
ments before  it  is  fit  to  fill  the  cans  to  make  clear  ice  from. 

Before  leaving-  Fig.  143  it  will  be  noted  that  many  of  the 
vessels  have  steam  connections  to  their  upper  ends  and  purg- 
ing- cocks  at  the  bottom;  this  arrangement  allows  them  to  be 
cleansed  by  being  blown  through.  In  the  case  of  the  filters, 
arrangements  of  pipes  and  valves  for  reversing  the  flow  of 
water  through  them  in  order  to  wash  them  out,  should  always 
be  supplied  and  fitted  up. 

Questions  that  naturally  arise  out  of  the  consideration  of 
such  a  system  are:  Can  the  extra  expenditure  of  coal 
involved  in  the  additional  evaporation  be  dispensed  with? 
Can  the  process  described  be  superseded  by  a  better  one? 
The  answer  to  both  of  these  is  "YES." 


252 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  253 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

PURE  DISTILLED  WATER  FOR  ICE  MAKING. 

The  evaporation  of  water  for  other  purposes  than  rais- 
ing- steam  for  power  is  essential  to  the  operations  of  many 
industries  besides  that  of  making-  pure  ice;  but  in  no  other 
branch  of  mechanical  engineering-  perhaps  has  it  received  so 
much  attention,  or  been  broug-ht  to  such  perfection  and  econ- 
omy, as  in  connection  with  the  work  of  the  sug-ar  refinery. 

The  system  of  "  double  effet"  evaporation  seems  to 
have  had  a  French  origin  as  the  g-eneral  retention  of  the 
French  pronunciation  would  indicate,  but  there  seems  to  be 
no  good  reason  why  Anglo-Saxons  and  their  kin  should  con- 
tinue to  say  "doobl-affay"  instead  of  "double  effect."  This 
system,  since  expanded  to  treble  and  multiple  effect,  is  now 
so  systematized,  that  with  three  effects  the  initial  evaporative 
work  of  the  boiler  can  be  increased  two  and  a  half  times,  and 
by  a  multiple  system,  at  least  four  times  the  initial  evapora- 
tion can  be  secured,  without  additional  fuel. 

For  ordinary  ice  factories  it  is  probable  that  a  double 
effect  plant  would  be  ample  to  produce  all  the  distilled  water 
\vhich  a  high  class  economical  steam  engine  could  freeze,  and 
with  a  low  class  engine  a  single  effect  would  be  powerful 
enough.  It  will  afford  a  better  illustration  of  the  process 
however,  and  produce  a  larger  supply  of  distilled  water  per 
pound  of  steam  with  the  triple  plant  to  be  described. 

Fig.  151  shows  an  elevation  of  an  ice  making  plant  fitted 
with  triple  effect  evaporators,  capable  of  supplying  2.4  pounds 
of  independently  distilled  \vater  for  every  pound  weight  of 
condensed  exhaust  steam  from  the  engine,  the  water  from 
which  can  be  returned  to  the  boiler. 

On  the  left  of  the  illustration  is  seen  a  Cornish  boiler,, 
with  a  lop-sided  furnace  to  facilitate  circulation,  inspection, 


254  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

and  cleaning-.  The  steam  passes  by  main  steam  pipe  to  the 
compound  cylinders  of  a  pair  of  compressors,  which  are  ar- 
ranged vertically  on  the  "straight  line"  system,  that  is,  hav- 
ing direct  connection  to  the  engine  pistons.  The  crank  shaft 
and  fly-wheel  are  placed  at  the  back  of  the  compressors,  and 
are  operated  by  beams  or  levers,  through  links  to  the  cross- 
heads  and  connecting  rods.  This  arrangement  reduces  the 
height  of  the  machine,  and  gives  great  facilities  for  the  work- 
ing of  either  air,  circulating,  feed  or  any  other  pumps — even 
to  deep  well  pumps — from  the  levers,  should  such  be  required 
with  a  plant. 

So  far  there  would  be  no  departure  from  the  system 
shown  by  Fig.  143.  (It  may  here  be  noted  that  the  air  pump 
marked  A  is  only  an  alternative  one,  and  that  in  such  posi- 
tion it  would  probably  take  less  power  to  drive  it  than  the 
direct  acting  air  pump  placed  under  the  condenser  requires.) 
Instead  of  the  exhaust  pipe  from  the  engines  being  led  through 
filters  and  purifiers  to  an  ordinary  condenser  (and  so  involve 
the  necessity  for  a  special  supply  of  condensing  water,  that 
would  afterwards  run  to  waste),  it  is  led  into  the  first  vessel 
marked  with  the  rather  unpoetical,  although  French,  title  of 
"pot,"  where  it  passes  by  an  annular  chamber  into  the  space 
surrounding  or  enclosing  a  number  of  copper  tubes,  which 
tubes  are  secured  in  an  upper  and  a  lower  tube  plate.  This 
tubular  heat  exchanger  is  called  a  "calandria,"  and  the  illus- 
tration shows  three  pots,  each  fitted  with  such  a  calandria  or 
steam  space.  The  large  tube  in  the  center  of  the  space,  about 
eight  inches  in  diameter,  is  intended  to  promote  circulation  in 
the  water  to  be  evaporated. 

The  water  spaces  of  the  three  pots  are  connected 
at  their  bottom  ends  by  internal  perforated  pipes,  and  also  to 
a  source  of  supply  for  the  water  to  be  evaporated.  By 
adjusting  the  cocks  Q,  F  and  G,  the  proper  water  level  is 
maintained  in  each  section  while  the  apparatus  is  at  work. 

The  last,  or  No.  3  pot,  is  in  connection  with  a  surface 
condenser  fitted  with  an  air  pump,  and  a  high  vacuum  is  main- 
tained in  it  by  the  pipe  N.  The  calandrias  of  the  pots  2 
and  3  are  connected  to  smaller  supplementary  pumps  by 
the  pipes  J  and  K  to  draw  off  the  water  condensed.  A  mod- 
erate vacuum  is  maintained  in  No.  2  and  a  low  vacuum  in 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  255 

No.  1.  In  the  case  of  No.  1,  the  exhaust  steam  is  at  a  back 
pressure  above  the  atmosphere,  and  thus  the  condensed  water 
from  the  exhaust  steam  of  the  engine  will  flow  to  the  hot  well 
from  that  calandria  without  the  help  of  a  pump,  by  the  pipe 
H,  for  re-delivery  to  the  boiler. 

The  connections  so  far  being-  grasped,  it  will  be  easily 
understood  that  owing-  to  the  latent  heat,  and  some  of  the 
sensible  heat,  of  the  exhaust  steam  being-  transferred  to  the 
clean  water  in  pot  No.  1,  such  steam  will  be  condensed  and 
the  transfer  of  its  heat  to  the  water  will  produce  evaporation 
at  the  temperature  due  to  a  low  vacuum.  The  vapor  from 
No.  1,  at  a  lower  temperature  than  the  exhaust,  passes  to  the 
calandria  of  No.  2,  and  there  produces  a  second  evaporation 
under  the  influence  of  a  better  vacuum,  and  the  vapor  from 
No.  2  causes  the  evaporation  in  No.  3  under  the  influence  of 
a  hig-h  vacuum. 

The  condensed  water  drawn  off  by  the  pumps  is  deliv- 
ered by  branches  L  and  M  to  a  distilled  water  receiver  in  a 
de-aerated  and  perfectly  pure  condition. 

The  feed  delivery  from  the  hot  well,  may,  and  should  be, 
filtered  in  order  to  remove  grease,  etc.,  and  it  may  be  passed 
through  an  economizer  placed  between  the  boiler  and  the 
chimney.  These  appliances  are  apart  from  the  direct  object 
of  the  illustration,  and  are  not  seen  on  the  plan. 

To  enable  any  refrigerating  engineer  to  estimate  for  a 
distilling  apparatus  of  this  description,  proportions  will  be 
given,  and  the  several  transfers  of  heat  be  worked  out  for 
evaporators  suitable  for  a  50-ton  plant.  Fifty  American  tons 
require  100,000  pounds  of  distilled  water  per  twenty-four 
hours,  and,  allowing  for  waste  8  per  cent  extra,  or  a  total  of 
108,000  pounds,  will  hardly  be  too  much  to  provide  for. 

By  following  the  diagram,  Fig.  152,  it  will  be  seen  that 
much  more  than  this  quantity  of  water  can  be  distilled  from 
the  waste  heat  in  the  exhaust  steam,  even  if  the  most  eco- 
nomical engine  in  steam  consumption  is  employed  to  work 
the  compressor. 

Fifty  tons  of  ice  per  day,  will  at  the  very  least  require 
115  indicated  horse  power;  and  the  most  economical  non- 
condensing  engines  that  can  be  made  will  hardly  do  with  less 
than  twenty  pounds  of  steam  per  horse-power-hour,  or  2,300 


256 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


pounds  per  hour.     At  the  same  time  the  molds,  apart  from 

100,000 
waste,  take  — ~ —  =  4,166   pounds  per   hour. 

It  will  be  assumed,  then,  that  in  order  to  allow  for  waste, 
4,500  pounds  of  distilled  water  per  hour  are  required,  and 
that  such  weight  of  ordinary  water  is  supplied  to  the  first 
vessel.  It  will  also  be  assumed  that  only  1,860  pounds  of  the 
exhaust  steam  are  to  be  utilized  instead  of  the  whole  2,300 
pounds,  such  steam  being-  under  a  back  pressure  of  five 
pounds  to  the  square  inch,  and  at  a  temperature  of  226° 


A/o /POT 


VACUUM  -4  95 

T£»>f>c*A  runt     eoj  ° 


/ 

Z» 

HA  ruat     /SI 

i 

ft 

Tir/ 

1 

'AL 

'UA 

A 
4*9, 

fS 

'[ 

FlG.    152. — DIAGRAM    OF    HEAT    TRANSFERS    IN    TRIPLE    EFFECT. 


The  supply  of  water  fed  into  the  first  vessel  may  be 
heated  by  means  of  coils  in  the  chimney  or  flues,  or  by  other 
appliances  for  the  transfer  of  heat,  with  increase  of  economy. 
If  however  it  be  assumed  that  its  temperature  is  only  120°, 
then  the  first  operation  will  be  to  raise  the  4,500  pounds  of 
water  from  120-  to  203°,  the  latter  being-  the  temperature  of 
vaporization  in  No.  1  vessel: — 

203°— 120°=83°. 
4,500  pounds  X  83°— 373,500  thermal  units. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  257 

Taking  the  latent  ^heat  of  steam  at  five  pounds  gauge 

373  500 
pressure  to  be  952  units,  then  —  ^r-  =391  pounds  steam  con- 


densed  as  the  equivalent  of  raising  4,500  pounds  of  water  83°. 

The  steam  passing  from  No.  1  vessel  is  marked  1,437 
pounds,  therefore  that  weight  of  water  has  to  be  evaporated 
at  a  temperature  of  203°,  the  latent  heat  at  such  temperature 
being  972.  The  latent  heat  of  the  steam  in  calandria  is  952. 

1  437  X  972 

Then-L%2Uatentheat)=1'467   P°Unds    &S    the    Weight   °f 
steam  condensed  equivalent  to  the  evaporation. 

Adding  this  1,467  pounds  to  the  393  pounds  above,  gives 
1,860  pounds  weight  of  condensed  water  to  be  drawn  from 
the  first  calandria,  which  is  of  course  the  same  as  the  exhaust 
steam  introduced.  This  water  may  be  returned  as  feed  to 
the  boiler  direct,  or  be  filtered  and  heated  in  an  economizer. 

Deducting  this  weight  of  1,437  pounds  evaporated  in  the 
first  vessel  from  the  total  of  4,500  pounds  supplied  to  it, 
4,500  —  1,437  =  3,063  pounds  of  water  passing  to  second  vessel. 

This  water  passes  in  at  a  temperature  of  203°,  but  as  the 
temperature  of  the  second  vessel  due  to  the  better  vacuum  is 
only  181°,  it  will,  in  falling  the  difference,  203—181=22°,  give 
off  vapor  as  follows:  — 
3,063X22 

~l920atentheat)  =  '°  P°UndS  (nearly)  °f  evaP°ratlon' 

As  the  vapor  from  the  top  of  the  first  vessel  amounting 
to  1,437  pounds  is  condensed  in  the  second  calandria  it  will- 
being  assisted  by  the  better  vacuum  and  lower  temperature  — 
evaporate  an  equal  weight,  or  nearly  so.  Adding  1,437  to 
70  gives  a  total  of  1,507  pounds  evaporated  from  the  top  of  the 
second  vessel. 

Deducting  again  this  weight  of  1,507  pounds  from  3,063 
passing  in  at  the  bottom,  3,063  —  1,507  gives  1,556  of  water  to 
supply  the  third  vessel.  This  being  in  direct  communica- 
tion with  a  surface  condenser,  and  having  a  vacuum  of 
twenty-four  inches,  the  corresponding  -temperature  will  be 
lowered  to  145C,  and  the  water,  in  dropping  from  181C,  will 
part  with  181  3  —  145^=36  units  per  pound. 

Then  *'556  X  36_  =55  Ibs.  (full)  of  vapor. 
1,012  (latent  heat) 

(17) 


258  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

As  before,  taking*  the  evaporation  in  the  third  vessel, 
due  to  the  condensation  in  its  calandria  of  the  vapor  from  the 
second  one,  to  be  equal  in  weight,  or  1,507  pounds,  the  total 
will  be  1,507  +  55=1,562  pounds  evaporated  from  the  top  of 
the  third  vessel. 

The  slight  discrepancy  between  1,556  pounds  entering- 
the  third  vessel  and  1,562  pounds  leaving-  —  which  should  be 
of  course  equal  —  is  due  to  slight  differences  in  the  latent 
heat  allowed  for.  The  sum  of  the  different  weights  of  vapor 
passing  out  of  the  three  vessels  to  be  condensed  for  the 
supply  of  the  ice  cans  is  1,437  +  1,507  +  1,562=4,506  pounds, 
slig-htly  in  excess  of  what  was  supplied  to  the  first  vessel. 
The  weight  of  steam  from  the  engine  exhaust  was  1,854 

pounds,  therefore  ^-^~A  =  2.43  pounds  of  distilled  water  for 


each  pound  of  exhaust  steam. 

It  will  easily  be  understood,  that  by  putting-  an  exchanger 
on  the  last  vessel's  outlet  to  the  condenser,  where  the  tem- 
perature is  145°,  more  initial  heat  could  be  given  to  the  water 
supply  of  4,500  pounds  weig'ht  above  120°,  with  improved 
results.  If  the  supply  is  fed  into  No.  1  vessel  at  203  then 

=  3.08  pounds  of  water  per  pound  of  steam. 

The  condensed  vapor  from  the  third  vessel  will  be  deliv- 
ered by  the  main  air  pump  from  the  surface  condenser,  and 
in  order  to  take  the  wrater  from  the  calandrias  of  Nos.  2  and 
3,  small  voiding  pumps  or  supplementary  air  pumps,  as 
before  described,  are  necessary. 

Such  an  apparatus  as  that  described  is  found  in  practice 
to  require  about  one  square  foot  of  heating  surface  for  six 

pounds  of  water  to  be  evaporated  per  hour,  therefore  - 

=  750  square  feet,  or  250  feet  for  each  vessel. 

The  tubes  would  be  about  thirty  inches  long-,  one  and 
one-half  inches  in  diameter  and  No.  16  or  17  gauge  in  thick- 
ness. 

It  will  be  noticed  in  Fig-.  151  that  the  vapor  pipes  differ 
in  size.  This  is  to  make  the  fall  of  temperature  between  the 
vessels  as  slight  as  possible.  The  velocity  of  the  vapor  is 
not  greater  than  3,500  feet  per  minute  into  the  first  calandria, 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


259 


4,000  feet  to  the  second;  5,000  to  the  third,  and  7,000  feet  to 
the  condenser. 

The  Colonial  Sugar  Refining-  Co.,  of  Sydney,  have  num- 
bers of  these  plants— some  of  enormous  size — working   at 


FlG.    153. — SIX-FOLD   EFFECT    FOR   DISTILLED   WATER. 

their  mills  in  New  South  Wales,  in  Queensland,  and  in  the 
South  Sea  Islands,  quadruple  and  quintuple  as  well  as  triple, 
and  by  successive  stages  they  have  much  reduced  the  com- 
plication so  that  one-half  of  the  cocks  and  fittings  as  used  in 
Europe  are  now  done  away  with.  They  have  also,  by  the  use 


260  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

of  large  pipes  giving  a  low  velocity  to  the  vapor,  reduced  the 
friction  and  loss  of  pressure,  and  largely  increased  the 
efficiency  of  the  plant. 

The  author  is  much  indebted  to  his  friend,  Mr.  Hector 
Kidd,  member  Institute  Mechanical  Engineers,  for  much 
reliable  information  derived  from  a  very  wide  experience 
with  these  evaporating  plants,  and  for  the  information  that 
with  the  company's  quintuple  effects  as  much  as  six  pounds 
of  water  per  pound  of  steam  is  evaporated,  or  say  fifty  pounds 
to  one  pound  of  very  ordinary  fuel.  A  paper  by  Mr.  Kidd 
on  this  subject  will  be  found  in  the  third  volume  of  the  trans- 
actions of  the  engineering  association  of  New  South  Wales. 

Fig.  153  shows  a  sextuple  effect  plant  suitable  for  such 
places  as  the  dry  uplands  of  Western  Australia,  where  the 
water  supply  is  so  salt  or  brackish  as  to.be  unfit -for  potable 
uses.  It  is  not  so  powerful  or  economical  as  the  plant  in  Fig. 
151,  but  is  differently  arranged  to  enable  the  salt  deposit  to 
be  easily  removed.  The  distilling  condenser  and  cooler  lie 
horizontal  and  communicate  with  the  sextuple  effects  coupled 
up  to  the  vertical  column  of  separators. 

Such  machines  are  capable  with  six  effects  of  producing 
four  and  one-half  pounds  of  fresh  water  from  sea  water  for 
every  pound  of  steam  raised  in  the  boiler;  and  being  generally 
independent  of  the  exhaust  steam  of  an  engine,  are  worked 
at  a  much  higher  initial  pressure  and  temperature  than  under 
the  system  shown  in  the  larger  plan  No.  151. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  261 


CHAPTER  XX. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  AND  FINAL. 

The  loss  of  time  necessarily  involved  through  this 
work,  written  in  Australia,  being-  printed  and  published  in 
Chicago,  has  sufficed  for  a  progressive  art  like  mechanical 
refrigeration  to  move  perceptibly  forward  in  the  interval. 
This  would  seem  to  warrant  the  inclusion  of  the  additional 
illustrations  and  remarks  regarding  same  which  follow. 

A  large  part  of  the  matter  comprising  this  chapter  is 
merely  an  outline  of  the  principal  distinctive  features  of  each 
of  the  machines  illustrated,  with  comparatively  little  analyti- 
cal comment  upon  same,  except  in  a  few  cases.  As  intimated 
above,  the  time  necessary  to  accomplish  such  work  would 
unduly  advance  the  date  of  publication.  It  is  proposed,  how- 
ever, to  prepare  for  a  second  edition  of  this  work  an  exhaust- 
ive analysis  of  all  features  of  machinery  and  systems  herein 
illustrated,  the  principles  of  which  have  not  been  thoroughly 
explained  and  described  in  this  edition. 

LATE    TYPES   AMERICAN    ABSORPTION    MACHINERY. 

The  absorption  system  is  briefly  described  in  Chapter 
VIII,  and  the  process  diagrammatically  explained  by  Fig. 
14,  but  no  details  or  illustrations  are  there  given  of  the  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  plant. 

In  the  Vogt  type  of  absorption  machine,  illustrated  by 
Fig.  154,  on  following  page,  the  noticeable  feature  is  the  ab- 
sence of  round  coils  and  bent  pipes  throughout  the  entire 
system. 

Fig.  155  shows  three  views  of  the  improved  generator 
or  still  of  an  absorption  plant,  as  made  by  the  Henry  Vogt 
Machine  Co.,  Louisville,  Ky.,  U.  S.  A.,  including  the  rectify- 
ing and  analyzing  devices.  By  the  system  of  fractional  dis- 


262 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


263 


tillation  thus  carried  out,  it  is  claimed  that  practically  anhy- 
drous ammonia  is  obtained. 

The  strong-  liquor  enters  by  the  side  connection  on  the 
top  of  the  stand  pipe.  The  gas  dissolved  in  such  liquor  is 
evaporated  and  driven  off  as  it  passes  through  the  successive 
stages  involved  in  flowing  through  A,  B,  C,  D,  E  and  F.  The 


FlG.   155. — GENERATOR   OR    STILL    FOR   VOGT   ABSORPTION    PLANT. 


liquor  is  left  very  weak  by  the  time  it  reaches  the  compart- 
ment O. 

An  examination  of  the  mechanical  construction  of  this 
generator  shows  that  it  consists  of  a  main  casting,  divided 
into  four  compartments,  communicating  with  each  other ; 
and  four  horizontal  pipes,  connected  to  main  casting,  which 
contain  the  steam  heating  coils.  The  upper  compart- 


264 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


ment  of  the  main  casting-  is  connected  to  a  stand  pipe 
containing-  an  analyzer  and  rectifying-  coil  for  drying  the  g-as 
before  leaving-  the  still.  The  strong  liquor  is  admitted  at  top 


of  stand  pipe,  passes  through  the  rectifying  coils  and 
analyzer  to  the  upper  compartment  of  the  main  casting-,  flow- 
ing thence  over  the  steam  coil  in  the  horizontal  pipes  from 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  265 

one  to  the  other  until  the  lower  compartment  is  reached. 
The  gas  generated  passes  through  the  opening  in  each  com- 
partment to  the  stand  pipe,  where  the  moisture  is  deposited, 
and  the  dry  gas  passes  to  the  condenser. 

Fig.  156  is  a  modern  type  of  heat  exchanger  or  economizer. 
It  is  made  with  straight  concentric  pipes,  and  is  of  a  most 
mechanical  and  trustworthy  design.  It  will  be  seen  that  the 
outer  tubes  are  connected  at  the  alternate  ends  by  H  pieces, 
and  that  the  internal  pipes  are  coupled  by  external  bends, 
which  also  act  as  glands  to  the  jointing.  This  method  of  con- 
struction makes  what  should  be  a  thoroughly  reliable  job. 

The  strong  liquor  on  its  way  to  the  still  enters  the  ex- 
changer at  the  bottom,  leaving  at  the  top.  The  weak  liquor 
from  the  still  enters  the  exchanger  at  the  top  and  leaves 
same  at  the  bottom. 

The  ammonia  pump  used  is  of  the  double-acting  hori- 
zontal fly-wheel  pattern.  The  special  feature  of  this  pump 
is  the  ammonia  stuffing  box  and  the  water  chamber  sur- 
rounding it,  which  latter  acts  as  a  lubricator  for  the  piston 
rod.  The  speed  of  the  pump  is  twenty-five  revolutions  per 
minute. 

The  absorber  is  constructed  like  an  upright  tubular 
boiler  open  at  the  top.  Tubes  are  distributed  uniformly  and 
arranged  in  such  manner  that  they  can  be  cleaned  while  the 
machine  is  in  operation.  The  cooling  water  enters  at  the 
bottom  and  discharges  at  the  top.  The  return  gas  from  the 
expansion  coils  enters  at  the  bottom  and  the  weak  liquor  at 
the  top,  the  flow  of  the  latter  being  controlled  by  an  auto- 
matic regulator. 

The  Ball  American  absorption  machine,  made  by  the 
Ice  and  Cold  Machine  Co.,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  U.  S.  A.,  as 
originally  constructed  in  1878,  and  of  five  tons  daily  ice 
making  capacity,  was  a  slight  modification  of  the  Carre 
machine.  The  ice  tank  was  eight  feet  square  and  twenty- 
four  inches  deep,  and  the  ice  cans  four  inches  thick  by  eight 
inches  wide,  also  eight  inches  square  by  twenty  inches  deep, 
making  ice  weighing  twenty-five  and  fifty  pounds  each, 
respectively.  The  cans  were  made  of  galvanized  iron,  some 
of  them  of  copper. 

The  original  cost  of  building  machine  was  $14,000. 


266 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


•$  * 


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o  p 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  267 

After  twenty-two  years  the  machine  is  still  of  the  Carre 
type,  enlarged  and  made  to  meet  the  American  idea  of  large 
units  and  expansion.  See  Fig.  157.  The  tank  of  eight  feet 
square  has  developed  into  tanks  30  X  90  feet,  and  from  one  to 
four  attached  to  one  machine.  Blocks  of  ice  no  longer  weigh 
twenty-five  pounds,  but  from  100  to  400  pounds,  and,  if  you 
talked  copper  cans,  you  would  be  thought  crazy. 

The  generator  is  a  vertical  cylinder  of  marine  steel,  with 
removable  top  head  to  same,  heated  with  steam  coil,  and  with 
drying  pans  in  the  gas  dome.  The  condenser  is  of  the  open 
air  or  submerged  type,  depending  upon  the  water. .  The  poor 
liquor  upon  leaving  the  generator  goes  into  the  shell  of  ex- 
changer or  equalizer,  which  is  a  cylinder  with  removable 
heads  containing  tubes.  The  poor  liquor,  from  the  shell  of 
this  exchanger,  goes  to  the  poor  liquor  cooler  coils  (either  of 
submerged  or  open  air  type),  and  from  there  to  the  absorber. 

The  gas  being  liquefied  in  the  condenser  goes  through 
expansion  valves  to  expansion  coils  in  freezing  tank,  and 
returns  from  freezing  tank  to  absorber. 

The  absorber  is  a  cylindrical  vessel  with  vertical  tubes, 
the  water  passing  up  through  the  tubes,  cooling  the  ammonia 
and  carrying  off  the  heat  generated  by  absorption. 

The  ammonia  pump  consists  of  two  single-acting  vertical 
pumps  driven  by  direct  connected  vertical  engine,  pumping 
the  now  enriched  ammonia  from  absorber  through  the  tubes 
of  the  exchanger  into  the  top  of  generator,  completing  the 
cycle. 

The  separation  of  moisture  in  retort  is  exceedingly  good, 
an  air  blast  of  14°  below  zero  F.,  being  obtained  under  ordi- 
nary working  conditions,  and  a  temperature  in  the  ice  tank 
of  from  zero  to  2°  above,  F.,  being  maintained  for  months  at 
a  time. 

In  experimental  machines,  absorbers  built  of  straight 
pipe  and  injecting  the  poor  liquor  into  the  gas  returning 
from  the  expansion  coils  have  been  made  with  very  satisfac- 
tory results,  especially  so  where  this  absorber  is  placed  from 
twenty-five  to  thirty  feet  above  the  expansion  coils,  and  the 
weight  of  the  rich  liquor  coming  down  to  the  rich  liquor  tank 
reducing  the  back  pressure  in  the  expansion  coils  some  six 
or  seven  pounds,  and  allowing  a  very  low  temperature  to  be 


268 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


carried.     An  absorber  of  this   type  works  after   the  same 
manner  as  a  Bulkley  siphon  steam  condenser. 

LATE    AMERICAN    CARBONIC    ACID    MACHINES. 

When  discussing-  the  use  of  carbonic  acid  as  a  refrigerat- 
ing agent  or  medium,  the  only  examples  illustrated  were  by 
Messrs.  Hall,  of  Dartford,  in  England.  Such  machines  are 
now  made  in  Germany,  in  Australia,  by  Mephan  Ferguson, 
of  Melbourne,  and  in  the  United  States. 


FlG.  158. — SECTIONS   OF   THE    COCHRAN    CO. 'S    CARBONIC    ANHYDRIDE 
MACHINE,    LORAIN,   OHIO,  U.  S.  A. 

Figs.  158  and  159  are  two  American  machines  of  recent 
introduction,  which  show  that  notwithstanding  the  greater 
power  required  for  a  given  amount  of  refrigeration,  carbonic 
acid  has  more  than  compensating  advantages  for  small  units, 
and  in  special  circumstances.  This  is  owing  to  its  innocuous 
character,  and  the  absence  of  danger  in  the  case  of  an  escape 
of  gas  from  the  machine. 

Messrs.  Kroeschell  Bros.'  machine  has  an  extremely  neat 
and  mechanical  looking  appearance.  That  by  the  Cochran 
Co.  is  made  more  complete  and  portable  by  having  the  con- 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION,  269 

denser  combined  on  one  sole  plate  with  it.  The  illustration, 
Fig-.  158,  shows  a  cross  and  transverse  section  of  their  simple 
motor  driven  compressor,  and  is  one  of  their  latest  designed 
machines. 

SOME   LATE    AMERICAN    CONDENSERS. 

Fig.  160  is  an  atmospheric  condenser  for  an  absorption 
plant,  made  by  the  Henry  Vogt  Machine  Co.,  Louisville,  Ky., 
U.  S.  A.,  and  is  of  the  type  (described  on  page  82  ante)  where 
vertical  headers  are  connected  by  zigzag  coils  laid  horizon- 
tally. These  zigzag  coils  form  a  two-storied  condenser,  as 
they  are  built  in  two  separate  sections.  The  gas  condenser 


FlG.   159.— KROESCHELL    BROS.    CARBONIC  ACID    MACHINE. 
CHICAGO,   ILL.,   U.  S.  A. 

headers  are  set  over  those  for  the  weak  liquor,  and  this  saves 
condensing  water,  as  the  weak  liquor  on  its  way  to  the  ab- 
sorber is  cooled  by  the  waste  water  from  the  condenser 
proper.  Besides  these  two  'exchangers  forecooler  coils  are 
shown  in  the  water  tray  below,  and  the  arrangement  is  such 
that  the  hot  gas  first  enters  these  submerged  coils,  where  it 
is  partially  cooled  by  the  water  from  the  coils  above.  The 
gas  then  passes  to  the  top  of  the  first  condenser  headers, 
flowing  horizontally  through  the  coils  until  the  anhydrous 
liquor  is  drawn  off  at  B. 

From  D  to  C  is  the  weak  liquor  cooler,  the  liquid  entering 
at  D  and  flowing    upward — in  the  reverse  direction   to  the 


270 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


cooling-  water — to  its  exit  at  C.     Practically  this  is  a  three- 
story  or  triplex  condenser,  and  it  is  as  such  (and  as  an  illus- 


LJ 


VOTeS  SUPPLY 


1 


FlG.   160. — TRIPLEX    AMMONIA    CONDENSER    FOR  VOGT  AMERICAN 
ABSORPTION    MACHINE. 

tration  of  a  modern  detail  to  secure  economy  in  the  use  of 
condensing-  water)  that  it  is  introduced. 

Submerg-ed    condensers   are    used    with    this    machine, 
especially  where  the  water  is  impure  and  contains  much  lime. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


271 


Fig.  161  is  an  illustration  of  an  ammonia  condenser  of 
the  Ball  type.  It  is  especially  effective  where  the  cooling- 
water  is  warm  or  scarce,  and  was  originally  constructed 
in  1890.  Since  then  it  has  been  extensively  copied  by  other 
builders. 

As  seen,  the  hot  gas  from  compressor  is  admitted  in  the 
lower  pipes  and  after  having-  the  sensible  heat  taken  out  of 
same  it  is  piped  to  the  top  of  condenser  where  the  fresh  water 
comes  in  contact  with  the  cool  gas,  instead  of  being  heated  by 
hot  g-as,  as  in  the  old  type  of  condensers  formerly  con- 
structed. The  saving  in  actual  expense  is  claimed  to  be  about 


M 


4 


£<L 


FlG.   161. — BALL    AMMONIA    CONDENSER. 
A.— Hot  Gas  Header,    .ff.— Liquid  Header.     C.— Air  Valve.    />.— Sprinkling-  Trough. 

15  per  cent  in  the  water  bill,  or  about  10  per  cent  in  the  con- 
denser pressure.  Condensing-  liquid  has  the  same  direction 
of  flow  as  the  gas,  and  not  an  opposite  flow,  as  in  some  con- 
densers. 

Fig-.  162  is  a  section  of  Frick  Co.'s  latest  design  of  atmos- 
pheric ammonia  condenser.  In  the  construction  of  this  con- 
denser the  manufacturers  have  aimed  to  have  the  cold  water 
come  in  contact  with  the  coldest  g-as,  which,  becoming- 
warmer  as  it  meets  the  warmest  g-as,  flows  off  over  the  hot 
gas  pipes  from  compressors,  finally  passing  off  through  the 
overflow. 

The  ammonia  condensers  designed  and  constructed  by 
the  Fred  W.  Wolf  Co.,  Chicago,  are  of  the  atmospheric  type 


272 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


273 


(IX) 


274 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  275 

(see  Fig-.  163),  the  standard  size  of  each  section  being-  twenty- 
four  2-inch  pipes  twenty  feet  long-.  These  pipes  are  manufact- 
ured from  selected  skelp,  and  the  drop  forg-e  Bessemer  steel 
flang-es  are  screwed  on  to  same  while  hot,  thereby  allowing- 
the  flange  to  shrink  on  as  it  cools.  These  condensers  are 
supplied  with  galvanized  iron  water  troughs  with  patent  level- 
ing device,  and  between  the  pipes  is  fastened  a  perforated 
steel  strip,  thereby  allowing-  a  free  circulation  of  air.  Each 
section  of  these  condensers  is  supplied  with  an  inlet  and 
outlet  valve,  thereby  allowing  each  section  to  be  evacuated  of 
ammonia  without  interfering-  with  the  operation  of  the  re- 
maining- sections  when  connected  with  the  suction  of  the  ma- 
chine. 

Fig-.  164  shows  a  side  and  end  elevation  of  the  Westerlin 
&  Campbell  patent  double-pipe  ammonia  condenser,  an  inven- 
tion of  recent  date,  constructed  with  a  view  of  incorporating 
all  of  the  best  and  most  practical  features  of  both  the  sub- 
merg-ed  and  atmospheric  types  of  ammonia  condensers. 
Reference  to  the  cut  will  show  that  the  condenser  is  con- 
structed with  a  small  pipe  encased  within  a  larg-er  pipe; 
usually  the  internal  pipe  is  one  and  one-fourth  inches  and  the 
external  pipe  two  inches.  The  g-as  inlet  is  located  in  the 
center  of  the  coil,  and  the  hot  ammonia  g-as  enters  the  space 
between  the  l^(-inch  and  2-inch  pipes,  spreading-  both  ways 
from  the  center  toward  the  two  ends.  At  the  ends  the  gas 
travels  down  to  the  next  space  between  the  pipes  below, 
where  it  travels  from  both  ends  toward  the  center,  and  again 
spreads  towrard  the  two  ends  in  the  next  succeeding-  space, 
the  object  being-  to  film  the  gas  out  to  the  greatest  possible 
extent,  bring-ing  all  of  the  gas  in  direct  contact  with  both  the 
internal  and  the  external  cooling-  surfaces.  The  water  en- 
ters the  1^-inch  pipe  at  the  foot  of  the  condenser  and  travels 
back  and  forth  upward  until  it  overflows  into  the  manifold  at 
the  top  and  end  of  the  condenser.  It  will  be  noticed  that 
while  the  travel  of  the  g-as  is  downward  the  travel  of  the 
water  is  upward,  making  an  interchange  of  temperature  that 
results  in  the  warmest  water  meeting  with  the  current  of 
the  warmest  gas,  and  the  gas  is  gradually  cooled  down  and 
condensed  into  liquid  as  it  travels  along-,  meeting  with  the 
cooler  water,  until  finally  the  ammonia  liquid  is  discharged  at 


276  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION, 

the  bottom  of  the  condenser  at  a  temperature  as  low  as  the 
temperature  of  the  initial  water  in  the  internal  pipe.  At  the 
foot  of  the  condenser  connections  are  provided  for  conveying- 
the  liquid  ammonia  to  the  liquid  receiver,  and  also  for  con- 
necting- to  the  suction  pipe  of  the  machine,  or  to  the  absorber, 
in  case  the  condenser  is  used  in  connection  with  an  absorp- 
tion machine,  so  that  the  g-as  inlet  and  liquid  outlet  can  be 
closed  and  all  of  the  gas  in  the  condenser  can  be  drawn  out 
in  case  of  necessity  for  repairs  without  interfering-  with  the 
operation  of  the  balance  of  the  plant.  The  condensers  are 
usually  erected  in  nests  of  several  stands,  and  it  is  always 
possible  to  cut  out  one  stand  for  repairs  without  shutting- 
down  the  plant.  The  water  connections  are  cross-connected 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  water  current  can  be  reversed 
when  it  is  desired  to  wash  out  the  internal  pipe.  It  has  been 
asserted  by  engineers  that  such  a  construction  of  condenser 
could  not  be  used  in  connection  with  waters  badly  impreg- 
nated with  scale  forming-  properties,  but  a  considerable 
experience  with  the  worst  waters  in  America  has  demon- 
strated that  the  scale  will  not  form  in  the  pipes  at  all,  even 
after  more  than  a  year  of  continuous  operation,  the  scouring 
of  the  rapid  current  of  water  through  the  internal  pipe  posi- 
tively preventing  deposit  of  scale,  sand  or  mud.  No  water 
is  used  over  the  outside  of  the  condenser,  consequently  it  can 
be  located  at  any  desired  point  about  the  plant,  without 
necessity  for  water  pans  or  tight  floors.  The  condenser  can 
also  be  placed  at  any  desired  level,  as  the  water  can  be  deliv- 
ered to  any  height  above  the  coils. 

COOLING  TOWERS. 

On  pages  64  to  67,  ante,  reference  is  made  to  the  re-use  of 
condensing  water  and  the  different  arrangements  by  which 
this  may  be  effected.  Fig-.  24  shows  an  evaporative  conden- 
ser in  a  cooling- tower.  Recently  several  new  devices  for  ac- 
complishing- the  same  result  have  been  devised,  notably  that 
embodied  in  the  patents  of  John  Stocker,  St.  Louis,  Mo., 
U.  S.  A.,  which  shows  a  hig-h  degree  of  efficiency.  A  very 
ingenious  method  for  distributing  the  water  over  the  tower 
is  adopted,  the  cooling-  surfaces  being  so  arranged  that  a 
perfectly  even  discharg-e  of  air  over  the  water  is  accomplished 
by  means  of  two  fans  instead  of  one. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


277 


SOME    RECENT    AMERICAN    VALVES. 

Fig-.  165  is  a  section  of  the  Ball  valve  used  by  the  Ice  and 
Cold  Machine  Co.,  of  St.  Louis,  Mo.     Its  construction  is  re- 


FlG.   165. — BALL   DISCHARGE   VALVE. 


FlG.    166. — FRED   W.    WOLF    CO. 'S   AMMONIA   VALVE. 

f erred  to  in  the  description  of  the  Ball  compression  machine 
found  on  page  303. 


278 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


The  ammonia  globe  valves,  manufactured  by  the  Fred 
W.  Wolf  Co.  (see  Fig-.  166),  each  contain  the  soft  metal  seat 
at  B.  These  valves  are  well  proportioned,  of  good  weight, 
and  are  made  to  stand  a  pressure  of  500  pounds;  further- 


FlG.    167. — FRICK    CO. 'S  AMMONIA   VALVE. 

more,  standing  the  strain  of  expansion,  contraction  and  the 
weight  of  pipe  and  settling.  They  are  also  so  constructed 
that  they  need  not  be  closed  to  repack  stuffing  boxes,  as  in 
having  the  valve  entirely  open  any  leak  through  the  stuffing 
box  is  entirely  obviated. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


279 


280 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


The  latest  construction  of  the  Frick  ammonia  valve,  re- 
ferred to  in  Chapter  XIII  of  this  work,  is  shown  in  section  by 
Fig-.  167,  on  page  278. 

THB   LATEST    DESIGNS    OF    AMERICAN    AMMONIA    COMPRESSION 
MACHINERY. 

Fig-.  168  is  a  half-tone  illustration  of  Frick  Co.'s  exhibit 
at  the  National  Export  Exposition,  Philadelphia,  1899. 


FlG.    169. — ELEVATION  FRICK    CO. 'S    LATEST    AMMONIA    COMPRESSOR 
CYLINDER,    WAYNESBORO,    PA.,   U.    S.   A. 

Figs.  169  and  170  are  the  elevation  and  section  respect- 
ively, of  the  most  recent  pattern  of  "Eclipse"  pump — in 
other  words,  the  ammonia  compressor  cylinder  —  as  now 
made  by  the  Frick  Co.,  of  Waynesboro,  Pa. 

This  new  design  is  worth  careful  study  by  both  the 
student  and  hard-shell  engineer,  as  it  is  a  good  example  of 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


281 


how  efficiency  may  be  combined  with  simplicity.     It  will  also 
be  noticed  that  it  embodies  those  special  qualities  upon  which 


PURGING  VALVE 


FlG.   170. — SECTION    FRICK    CO. 'S   LATEST    AMMONIA    COMPRESSOR 
CYLINDER,   WAYNESBORO,   PA.,  U.  S.   A. 

so  much  stress  was  laid  (as  being-  desirable  in  such  cylin- 
ders) on  pages  110,  111,  123  and  151,  ante.  It  was  there  argued 
that  plain  barrel  cylinders,  without  attached  feet  or  encir- 


282 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


cling1  passages,  favored  homogeneous  casting's  of  sound  and 
solid  metal;  and  this  is  effected  in  the  pump  under  notice,  by 
the  simple  but  elegant  device  of  detaching  the  delivery  pass- 
age from  the  main  body  of  the  casting,  for  the  whole  length 
of  the  piston's  travel  in  the  cylinder.  The  connection  of  the 
pipes  to  the  inlet  and  outlet  branches  is  simplified,  by 
bringing  them  both  below  the  water  jacket ;  this  leaves  the 


FlG.    171. — YORK    MFG.     CO. 'S    MAMMOTH    MACHINE,    400    TONS 
REFRIGERATING    CAPACITY. 

head  quite  clear,  and  makes  inspection  of  the  valves  an  easy 
matter. 

No  lantern  bushes  are  shown  in  the  piston  rod  packing, 
but  the  stuffing  box  is  still  longer  than  many  engineers  con- 
sider necessary  or  even  desirable ;  and  oil  is  fed  below  the 
packing.  This  pump  should  be  compared  with  that  shown 
by  Fig.  58,  page  102;  both  aim  high,  but  seek  perfection  in 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


283 


different  -ways,  and  both  are  better  than  the  one  illustrated 
by  Fig-.  64,  to  which,  nevertheless,  the  indebtedness  of  Fig. 
58  for  some  ideas  is  gratefully  acknowledged. 

The  York  Co.,  of  York,  Pa.,  have  only  so  far  been 
represented  in  this  work  as  manufacturers  of  compound 
ammonia  -compressors,  and  by  Figs.  66  and  70.  In  Fig.  171 


FlG.  172. — SECTION   YORK    MFG.    CO. 'S    COMPRESSOR. 

there  is  a  perspective  view  of  a  modern  mammoth  machine 
made  by  the  same  builders,  and  equal  to  400  tons  refrigera- 
tion. It  has  two  single-acting  compressors,  thirty  inches  diam- 
eter, forty- eight-inch  stroke,  fitted  with  cross-compound  con- 
densing steam  engine;  high  pressure  cylinder,  thirty-inch 
bore;  low  pressure  cylinder,  fifty-eight-inch  bore,  forty-eight- 
inch  stroke.  The  crank  shaft  has  two  throws  and  four  bear- 
ings. The  machine  is  fitted  with  one  fly-wheel  in  the  center 


284 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


1  IG.  173. — PENNEY'S  HORIZONTAL  DOUBLE-ACTING  COMPRESSOR, 

NEWBURGH  ICE  MACHINE  AND  ENGINE  CO., 

NEWBURGH,  N.  Y. ,  U.  S.  A. 


FlG.    174. — LATE    REMINGTON   MACHINE,  WILMINGTON,   DEL.,   U.    S.    A. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


285 


of  the  bed  plate,  between  the  two  cranks.     The  weight  of  this 
machine  when  completed  was  400,000  pounds. 

Fig-.  172  shows  a  section  of  the  York  vertical  machine, 
late  design. 


FlG.   175. — SECTION    OF   REMINGTON    MACHINE, 
WILMINGTON,  DEL.,  U.  S.  A. 

For  the  reasons  given  on  pag-es  119  and  120,  straig-ht-line 
ammonia  compressors  have  not  been  greatly  favored  in  the 
past,  althoug-h  it  is  common  enough  for  compressed  air.  In 
Fig-.  173,  the  Penney  machine,  made  by  the  Newburg-h  Ice 
Machine  and  Eng-ine  Co.,  Newburg-h,  N.  Y.,  U.  S.  A.,  is  a 


286 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION, 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


287 


288 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


modern  example  of  this  type,  and  the  heavy  character  of  the 
fly-wheels,  supporting-  what  is  said  on  pages  123  and  124,  is 
very  clearly  apparent. 

The  Reming-ton  vertical  compressor,  as  shown  in  Fig's. 
174  and  175,  is  of  the  single-acting-,  inclosed  crank  type,  and 
has  but  one  stuffing-  box,  that  on  the  revolving-  shaft.  The 
ordinary  type  of  trunk  piston  is  used,  and  the  crank  shaft  is 
supplied  with  a  center  bearing-  in  order  to  provide  for  a  rig-id 
construction,  and  at  all  times  runs  in  oil. 


FlG.   178. — SECTION    AMERICAN    LINDE    COMPRESSOR    CYLINDER, 
FRED  W.    WOLF  CO.,    CHICAGO,   U.   S.   A. 

There  are  two  cylinders  made  in  one  casting-  provided 
with  heads  in  which  are  located  the  suction  and  discharge 
cag-es  and  valves.  These  cag-es  and  valves  are  readily  acces- 
sible by  removing- the  cross-bars  on  top  of  the  heads,  without 
breaking-  any  other  joints  than  those  directly  over  the  cag-e. 

The  heads  of  the  two  cylinders  are  connected  on  the  suc- 
tion side  to  a  common  strainer  box  for  catching-  the  dirt  and 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  289 

sediment,  and  the  discharge  side  to  a  throttle  valve  common 
to  both  cylinders. 

The  American  type  of  the  Linde  machine,  as  manufact- 
ured by  the  Fred  W.  Wolf  Co.,  Chicago,  shows  many  varia- 
tions in  construction  from  the  original  Linde  machine,  as  de- 
signed by  Prof.  Carl  Linde,  in  1875,  the  construction  and 
operation  of  which  have  been  thoroughly  described  and  ex- 
plained in  Chapter  XV  of  this  work.  Illustrations  of  the 
latest  type  American  Linde  machine  are  inserted  here  to 
show  these  variations  in  construction.  . 

These  machines  are  of  the  ammonia  compression  type, 
operating  on  the  humid  gas  system. 

Fig-s.  176  and  177  represent  the  "Standard"  and 
"Tangye"  styles  of  frames,  the  working  parts  of  each,  how- 
ever, being  of  the  same  general  design  and  construction. 

Fig.  178  is  a  sectional  view  of  the  latest  Wolf  design  of 
the  Linde  compressor  cylinder. 

The  refrigerating  machine  as  built  by  the  Vilter  Manu- 
facturing Co.,  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  U.  S.  A.,  illustrated  by  Figs. 
179  and  180,  consists  of  one  or  two  horizontal  double-acting 
ammonia  compressors  driven  by  one  horizontal  engine,  gen- 
erally of  the  Corliss  type,  built  also  by  the  same  firm.  The 
engine  and  compressor  cranks  are  keyed  on  the  ends  of  the 
shaft  at  angles  to  each  other,  bringing  the  highest  gas 
pressure  in  the  compressor  at  a  point  where  the  engine  gets 
the  highest  steam  pressure. 

The  ammonia  compressor,  as  shown  partly  in  section  and 
partly  in  perspective,  is  generally  cast  with  slides  and  pillow 
block  in  one  piece.  After  the  guides  and  frame — that  is,  the 
water  jacket  of  the  compressor — are  bored,  a  cylindrical  bush- 
ing is  forced  into  the  water  jacket,  forming  the  compressor 
wearing  surface  proper,  and  then  a  finishing  cut  is  taken  in 
one  setting  of  the  entire  frame  through  the  guides  and  com- 
pressor, for  the  purpose  of  making  the  guides  absolutely 
true  with  the  compressor. 

The  four  ammonia  compressor  valves  are  placed  in  the 
two  circular  heads.  The  heads  fit  into  a  recess,  and  are  packed 
with  a  metallic  packing. 

The  suction  and  discharge  valves  are  readily  accessible, 
which,  together  with  the  stems,  are  made  of  forged  steel,  and 

(19) 


290 


MACHINERY   FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION,  291 

are  provided  with  gas  cushions,  to  avoid  crystallization  and 
noise  in  the  working-  of  the  valve.  The  valve  seats  are  of 
cast  steel,  turned  true,  and  fit  with  a  ground  -joint  in  the 
compressor  head,  making-  the  use  of  packing-  unnecessary. 

The  compressor  plung-er  is  provided  with  self-adjust- 
ing- packing-  ring's  having-  bull  ring's  besides,  which  can  be 
replaced  easily.  The  piston  and  follower  are  turned  to  a  cir- 
cle to  fit  exactly  into  the  front  and  back  heads  respectively  of 
the  compressor.  The  clearance  between  the  plung-er  and  the 
head  is  thereby  reduced  to  a  minimum.  The  leng-th  of  the 
plung-er  rod  can  be  adjusted,  so  as  to  divide  the  clearance 
equally  at  both  ends,  and  so  take  up  the  wear  of  the  crank 
and  cross-head  boxes. 

The  stuffing-  box  consists  of  a  metallic  packing-  in  the 
head,  which  is  held  in  position  by  a  long-  hollow  sleeve,  throug-h 
which  oil  is  circulated  by  means  of  an  automatic  oil  pump,  and 
this  oil  is  used  for  lubrication  of  the  plung-er  rod,  as  well  as 
for  forming-  a  seal  ag-ainst  the  escape  of  ammonia.  The  outer 
end  of  this-hollow  sleeve  is  held  in  position  by  a  separate  sup- 
port, which  is  bolted  to  the  compressor  frame  proper,  and  at 
the  outer  end  of  this  support  a  packing-  is  provided  for 
retaining-  the  oil.  By  this  arrangement  of  the  stuffing-  box,  it 
is  claimed  by  the  manufacturers  that  they  are  enabled  to  oper- 
ate the  compressor  with  a  very  much  hig-her  discharg-e  pres- 
sure than  could  otherwise  be  effected. 

Proper  by-pass,  or  cross-connections,  are  placed  between 
the  suction  and  discharge  pipes  close  to  the  compressor,  so 
that  the  valves  can  be  operated  for  pumping-  out  the  con- 
denser without  leaving-  the  engine  room. 

The  cross-heads  are  provided  with  adjustable  shoes  by 
wedge  adjustment;  the  connecting-  rods  have  solid  heads,  and 
the  crank  pin  is  provided  with  a  brass  box  lined  with  babbit 
metal,  the  cross-head  box  being-  of  solid  brass.  The  wear  of 
both  boxes  is  taken  up  by  wedg-e  adjustment. 

If  two  ammonia  compressors  are  driven  by  one  eng-ine, 
they  are  g-enerally  arrang-ed  tandem,  and  both  connecting- 
rods  are  coupled  to  one  crank  pin.  Larger  compressors  are 
often  driven  by  compound  non-condensing-  or  compound  con- 
densing- engines,  and  if  there  is  a  scarcity  of  water,  cooling- 
towers  may  be  added,  so  that  water  can  be  cooled  and  re-used. 


292 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  293 

The  compressors  may  also  be  driven  by  belt  or  rope 
transmission  from  a  line  shaft  operated  by  an  engine,  also 
doing-  other  work,  or  by  electric  motor,  or  by  water  power. 

Fig-.  181  shows  a  perspective  view  and  Fig-.  182  a  section 
of  the  compressor  of  the  Triumph  Ice  Machine  Co.,  of  Cin- 
cinnati, Ohio,  U.  S.  A.  This  compressor  is  of  the  horizontal 
double-acting  type,  and  is  fitted  with  five  valves,  three  suc- 
tion and  two  discharge.  The  third,  or  auxiliary  suction 
valve,  is  perfectly  balanced,  and  is  much  lighter  than  the 
main  suction  valves.  The  main  suction  valves  must  of  neces- 
sity be  of  sufficient  size  to  admit  the  charge  of  gas  quickly  at 
the  beginning  of  each  stroke.  The  springs  controlling  them 
must  therefore  have  an  appreciable  tension,  and  it  can  be 
readily  seen  that  in  consequence  the  pressure  of  the  gas  in 
the  cylinder  during  admission  is  less  in  the  suction  pipe  by 
just  the  tension  of  these  springs. 

The  construction  of  the  suction  valves  is  as  follows:  A 
guard  is  screwed  on  to  the  stem,  fitted  inside  of  the  cage,  and 
is  ribbed  so  as  to  reduce  the  port  area,  the  stem  being  made 
larger  at  the  bottom  for  this  purpose.  Both  suction  and  dis- 
charge valves  have  a  stem  leading  to  them  through  the  stuff- 
ing box,  and  can  be  handled  from  the  outside,  thereby  allow- 
ing any  tension  to  be  brought  on  the  springs  at  any  time. 
This,  it  is  claimed,  is  necessary  on  account  of  machines  being 
worked  at  different  pressures  and  their  relative  tempera- 
tures. For  instance,  one  side  of  a  machine  may  be  called 
upon  to  work  on  a  temperature  of  10°  to  15°  below  zero,  the 
other  side  to  10°  or  15C  above,  consequently  the  springs  on 
one  of  them  would  have  to  be  changed  so  as  to  make  it  oper- 
ate properly,  and  also  enable  the  engineer  to  know  by  obser- 
vation whether  they  are  opening  and  closing  at  the  proper 
time,  and  whether  they  have  the  proper  amount  of  lift,  etc. 

The  stuffing  box  has  three  compartments  for  packing, 
and  is  fitted  with  a  relief  valve,  which  leads  into  the  suction. 
The  piston  is  shrunk  onto  the  piston  rod,  making  it  a  perfect 
fit.  The  heads  are  concave,  and  of  such  a  radius  as  to  obtain 
a  larger  valve  area. 

Every  part  of  the  compressor  is  accessible.  The  main 
shut-off  valves  are  so  constructed  that  they  can  be  packed 
while  the  machine  is  in  operation. 


294 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


MACHINERY   FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


295 


296 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION, 


An  inspection  of  the  great  works  of  the  Fresh  Food  and 
Ice  Co.,  of  Sydney,  N.  S.  W.,  affords  a  splendid  example  of 
the  progress  that  has  been  made  during-  the  past  few  years 
in  improving-  and  perfecting-  refrig-erating-  machinery  in  its 
various  applications  to  the  needs  of  commerce.  The  great 


FlG.   183. — HERCULES    MACHINE   IN    NEW    SOUTH   WALES    FRESH    FOOD 
AND   ICE    CO. 'S   WORKS,    SYDNEY,    N.    S.   W. 


work  of  the  late  Mr.  T.  S.  Mort  (referred  to  in  the  historical 
chapter),  is  still  in  evidence,  and  is  continually  expanding. 
This  company,  of  which  two  of  Mr.  Mort's  sons  are  direc- 
tors, is  the  largest  company  of  the  kind  in  the  southern 
hemisphere,  and  in  its  way  unique.  It  runs  refreshment 
rooms,  and  it  has  a  large  railway  and  shipping  business,  both 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


297 


FlG.   184. — LATEST   DESIGN    HERCULES    LARGE    COMPRESSOR. 


FlG.   185. — LATEST  DESIGN   HERCULES  MACHINE,   STEAMSHIP  PATTERN. 


298 


MACHINERY   FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  299 

domestic  and  foreign,  in  ice,  fish,  poultry,  rabbits  and  hares. 
The  New  South  Wales  railways  run  into  its  premises,  carry- 
ing- its  own  refrigerating  vans.  Its  milk  tanks,  at  head- 
quarters alone,  have  a  capacity  of  over  30,000  gallons,  and  in 
one  month  it  has  shipped  80,000  frozen  sheep  to  London. 

The  freezing  machinery  of  this  company's  principal 
works  includes  two  compound  compressing  plants  made 
under  the  Lock  patents,  one  De  La  Vergne  machine  and  one 
Auldjo  machine,  all  four  machines  being  built  by  the  Morts 
Dock  Co.,  of  Sydney.  There  is  also  one  De  La  Vergne  ma- 
chine, made  in  New  York,  besides  the  latest  addition  to  the 
plant,  which  is  a  70-ton  Hercules  machine,  with  compound 
tandem  engine.  Fig.  183  is  a  view  from  one  angle  of  the 
principal  engine  room.  The  Hercules  machine  is  the  promi- 
nent feature,  while  the  De  La  Vergne  machines  will  be 
noticed  in  the  rear.  Since  the  World's  Fair  at  Chicago, 
Australia  and  New  Zealand  have  been  so  well  exploited  in 
the  interests  of  the  Hercules  machine,  that  it  is  now  running 
in  much  greater  numbers  than  other  makes  of  refrigerating 
plants  throughout  the  colonies,  and  as  Figs.  72  and  73  are 
only  diagrams,  more  justice  is  done  to  its  importance  by  this 
later  illustration  and  Figs.  184  and  185,  the  former  showing 
the  latest  design  of  large  machines,  the  latter  the  steamship 
pattern,  as  made  by  C.  A.  MacDonald,  Chicago  and  Sydney. 

The  illustration  No.  186  deserves  notice  for  several  rea- 
sons. It  is  a  perspective  of  a  gigantic  machine,  as  shown  by 
the  comparative  size  of  the  men  alongside,  and  is  rated  as 
equal  to  725  tons  refrigeration.  The  builders  are  the  Ice  and 
Cold  Machine  Co.,  of  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  and  their  design  pre- 
sents differences  in  detail  from  any  machine  so  far  referred  to. 
It  is  a  straight  line  machine,  but  it  embodies  the  arrangement 
advocated  on  pages  130  and  131 — with  a  right-angled  connec- 
tion— in  having  a  straight  shaft  and  only  two  bearings;  the 
fly-wheel  being  in  the  center,  and  a  crank  at  each  end. 
Where  it  differs  from  the  average  straight  line  machine  is  in 
the  adoption  of  cross-heads,  guides  and  connecting  rods,  to 
both  the  steam  and  ammonia  ends;  two  connecting  rods, 
side  by  side,  being  connected  to  the  same  crank  pin.  This, 
of  course,  adds  to  the  length  of  the  machine,  and  increases 
the  frictional  losses;  but  there  are,  no  doubt,  good  and 


300 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


FlG.    187.— BUFFALO   REFRIGERATING    MACHINE    CO. 'S    COMPRESSOR, 
BUFFALO,  N.   Y.,   U.   S.   A. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


301 


weighty  reasons  for  adopting-  this  arrangement,  instead  of 
the  more  usual  one  of  connecting  up  the  steam  and  compres- 
sor pistons  to  one  cross-head  only,  and  with  one  connecting 
rod  to  each  side.  One  of  these  reasons  is  obvious,  and  that 
is,  it  enables  either  of  the  ammonia  cylinders  to  be  discon- 


FlG.   188.  — SECTION    BUFFALO   REFRIGERATING    MACHINE    CO. 'S 
COMPRESSOR    CYLINDER,   BUFFALO,   N.  Y.,  U.  S.  A. 

nected  without  requiring  the  engine  on  the  same  side  to  be 
stopped  also. 

A  further  reference  to  the  cut  will  show  that  the  valve  is 
located  on  the  cylinder,  being  a  gravity  valve  without 
springs.  It  works  over  a  plunger,  the  cushion  of  gas  for 
closing  same  being  regulated  by  a  needle  valve,  which  regu- 


302  MACHINERY   FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

lates  the  compression  or  vacuum  in  the  chamber  formed  by 
the  valve  and  plunger,  the  suction  valve  being-  directly  oppo- 
site to  the  discharge  valve  (see  Fig.  165). 

Fig.  187  is  a  perspective  view  of  the  latest  design  25-ton 
vertical  straight  line  machine,  manufactured  by  the  Buffalo 
Refrigerating  Machine  Co.,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.  It  is  double-act- 
ing. The  ammonia  compressor  and  steam  cylinder  are  in 
alignment  and  bolted  to  a  rigid  cast  iron  frame,  mounted  on 
a  heavy  and  substantial  bed  plate,  in  one  piece.  The  machine 
is  therefore  self-contained.  The  form  of  construction,  as 
illustrated  by  this  machine,  has  been  exhaustively  treated  in 
Chapter  XV  of  this  work. 

This  compressor  may  be  operated  by  an  engine  of  either 
the  slide  valve,  automatic  cut-off  or  Corliss  pattern.  The 
clearance  in  cylinder  is  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

The  piston  is  provided  with  patented  self-adjusting 
packing  rings,  one  at  the  top  and  one  at  the  bottom  end.  The 
pressure  of  the  ammonia  gas  acting  upon  the  conical  sur- 
face of  the  ring  expands  the  same  in  all  directions  outward 
against  the  wall  of  the  cylinder,  forming  a  perfectly  tight 
joint. 

The  pressure  and  suction  valves  are  of  ample  area  to 
handle  the  gas  without  wire-drawing,  and  their  construction  is 
such  that  they  leave  but  little  or  no  useless  space  inside  of 
the  cylinder,  in  which  the  compressed  gas  can  collect.  The 
valves  are  made  of  forged  steel,  case-hardened  on  seats,  and 
are  ground  to  a  perfect  seat.  They  hava  long  guiding  sur- 
faces and  are  arranged  with  cushioning  chambers  to  relieve 
them  from  undue  strain,  prevent  slamming  and  bring  them 
gently  and  noiselessly  to  their  seat.  The  stem  of  suction 
valve  is  provided  at  the  bottom  with  a  collar,  which  prevents 
the  valve  from  dropping  into  the  cylinder  in  case  the  nut  on 
top  of  the  valve  stem  should  get  loose.  The  cages  in  which 
the  valves  work  are  made  of  cast  steel,  and  are  so  arranged, 
as  will  be  seen  in  the  section  Fig.  189,  that  they  can  quickly 
and  easily  be  removed  and  replaced  without  disturbing  any 
other  connection. 

The  stuffing  box  is  long  and  is  so  arranged  that  between 
the  upper  and  lower  packing  an  oil  chamber  is  provided,  which 
is  automatically  supplied  with  oil  from  the  oil  tank,  as  shown 


MACHINERY   FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


303 


FlG.    189. — BOYLE    COMPRESSOR,   PENNSYLVANIA   IRON    WORKS    CO. 
PHILADELPHIA,   U.   S.   A. 


304 


MACHINERY   FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


in  cut.  The  operation  of  the  oil  arrangement  is  as  follows: 
The  oil  tank  is  supplied  as  often  as  necessary  with  oil  by  the 
hand  pump  attached  to  the  tank.  The  lower  end  of  the  tank 
is  connected  to  the  lower  part  of  oil  chamber  in  the  stuffing 


FlG.     190. — BOYLE     SINGLE-ACTING    MACHINE     WITH     VERTICAL     ENGINE, 
PENNSYLVANIA    IRON    WORKS    CO.,    PHILADELPHIA,   U.    S.    A. 

box,  and  the  upper  end  of  chamber  is  connected  to  the  upper 
end  of  oil  tank;  a  connection  also  is  made  from  upper  end  of 
oil  tank  to  suction  valve  of  machine.  By  this  means  the  oil 
in  oil  tank  will  be  under  suction  pressure  of  the  ammonia  gas 


MACHINERY   FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


305 


on  the  top  and  bottom  side,  and  as  the  oil  tank  is  placed  above 
the  oil  chamber  in  stuffing-  box,  the  oil  will  flow  into  the  latter 
by  its  own  gravity,  and  any  leakag-e  of  ammonia  from  the 
ammonia  cylinder  throug-h  the  first  layers  of  packing-  into  the 


FlG.  191. — BOYLE   SINGLE-ACTING    MACHINE   WITH   HORIZONTAL  ENGINE, 
PENNSYLVANIA   IRON    WORKS    CO.,   PHILADELPHIA,   U.    S.   A. 


oil  chamber  of  the  stuffing-  box  will  be  drawn  into  the  suction 
pipe  of  the  machine,  and  consequently  the  pressure  in  stuffing- 
box,  it  is  claimed,  can  never  exceed  the  suction  pressure 
under  which  the  machine  is  working-.  The  quantity  of  the 


(20) 


306 


MACHINERY   FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


oil  fed  to  stuffing-  box  is  regulated  by  the  valves  on  pipes 
communicating'  with  the  oil  tank.  The  oil,  adhering1  to  the 
piston  rod ,  finds  its  way  into  the  cylinder  in  sufficient  quantity 
to  lubricate  same. 

The  gas  cylinder  and  its  top  and  bottom  head  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  water  jacket  for  removing  the  heat  of  com- 


FlG.   192. — TYPE    OF    ARCTIC    AMERICAN    MACHINE    BUILT    IN    1879. 

pression  as  far  as  possible.  The  clearance  space  between 
the  cylinder  heads  and  piston  is  reduced  to  a  minimum,  only 
the  thickness  of  the  sheet  packing  being  allowed. 

Reference  is  made  on  page  132  to  the  Boyle  vertical  ma- 
chine, as  built  some  twenty  years  ago,  in  comparison  with 
same  machine  as  built  by  the  Pennsylvania  Iron  Works  Co., 
Philadelphia,  U.  S.  A.,  and  illustrated  on  page  133. 


MACHINERY   FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


307 


The  distinctive  features  of  this  modern  type  of  the  Boyle 
machine  lie  in  two  vertical  single-acting-  compressors  in  com- 
bination with  either  a  vertical  or  horizontal  eng-ine.  See  Fig-. 
189,  being-  a  section  of  the  cylinder,  and  Figs.  190  and  191, 
showing-  single-acting-  compressors,  with  vertical  and  hori- 
zontal engines,  respectively. 

The  compressor  valves  are  inclosed  in  removable  cag-es, 
both  suction  and  discharg-e  of  which  are  located  in  the  upper 


FlG.    193. — SECTION    ARCTIC    AMERICAN    MACHINE   AS    BUILT   IN   1900. 

head,  being-  held  in  position  by  cross-bars  and  a  single  set 
screwron  top  of  each,  the  head  having-  a  division  in  the  center, 
the  g-as  entering-  throug-h  its  pipe,  which  is  screwed  into  a 
pocket  extending-  from  the  body  of  the  cylinder,  and  commu- 
nicating- with  the  inlet  chamber,  and  throug-h  its  valve  enter- 
ing- the  cylinder  during-  the  downward  stroke  of  the  piston. 
Upon  the  return  stroke  the  g-as  is  compressed  until  it  equals 


308  MACHINERY   FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

the  pressure  within  the  condenser,  the  discharge  valve  in 
the  opposite  side  of  the  head  then  lifting-  and  allowing  the 
discharge  of  the  gas  through  the  valve  and  communicating 
chamber  to  the  discharge  pipe  from  the  compressor.  The 
suction  chamber  also  communicates  with  the  lower  end  of 
the  compressor  cylinder,  filling  the  same  with  gas  during  the 
upward  stroke  of  the  piston,  and  allowing  its  exit  during  the 
downward  stroke  thereof.  The  upper  portion  of  the  cylinder 
is  surrounded  by  water  jacket,  having  inlet  and  outlet  open- 
ings provided  for  the  flow  of  water  from  the  same,  taking  up 
a  portion  of  the  heat  due  to  the  compression  of  the  gas,  and 
keeping  the  compression  valves  and  different  parts  at  a  tem- 
perature to  not  interfere  with  their  proper  operation. 

The  compressor  piston  is  of  the  solid  type,  having  a 
number  of  snap  rings,  the  tension  of  which  makes  them  tight 
enough  to  prevent  the  leakage  of  gas  past  them. 

The  stuffing  box  has  an  evaporating  pressure  only  upon 
it,  is  easily  kept  tight,  and  consequently  there  is  little  wear 
or  tear  on  the  rod. 

Owing  to  the  single-acting  feature,  the  clearance  can  be 
reduced  to  a  minimum,  the  compressor  piston  traveling  as 
close  to  the  head  as  possible  without  touching  same.  The 
piston  and  valves  being  perfectly  balanced  also,  exert  no  side 
wear  upon  the  cylinder  or  other  parts,  and  present  the  most 
desirable  features  for  continued  service. 

The  Arctic  machine,  built  at  Cleveland,  Ohio,  U.  S.  A., 
has  been  on  the  market  since  1879,  and  machines  of  that  date 
are  still  in  use.  It  was  one  of  the  first  of  this  class  of  ma- 
chines to  come  into  general  use  in  America.  Fig.  192  is  a  per- 
spective of  an  Arctic  machine,  as  built  in  1879;  Fig.  193  is  a 
section  of  machine,  as  built  in  1900,  by  the  Arctic  Machine  Co. 

The  machine  is  of  the  double-acting  ammonia  com- 
pressor type,  built  either  with  a  vertical  steam  engine  and 
vertical  compressor  or  with  a  horizontal  steam  cylinder  and 
two  vertical  compressors. 

The  construction  of  this  machine  has  changed  in  many 
ways,  /.  £.,  the  large  fly-wheel  has  given  place  to  one  more  in 
proportion,  and  usually  placed  between  the  columns;  when 
placed  on  the  outside  the  shaft  has  an  outside  bearing.  The 
compressor  valves  are  now  fitted  in  cages;  formerly  the  head 


MACHINERY   FOR   REFRIGERATION. 


309 


of  compressors  had  to  be  removed  to  get  at  them.  The  stuff- 
ing- box  of  compressor  is  deeper  and  fitted  with  oil  sleeves. 
Corliss  valve  motion  has  taken  place  of  the  slide  valve,  while 
connecting-  rods,  cross-heads,  piston,  etc.,  have  been  made  to 
conform  to  modern  practice. 


FlG.   194. — SECTION    OF    CASE    COMPRESSOR,    CASE   REFRIGERATING 
MACHINE    CO.,   BUFFALO,   N.   Y. 

Fig.  194  is  an  illustration  of  a  refrigerating-  machine  built 
by  the  Case  Refrigerating  Machine  Co.,  of  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
These  machines  are  of  heavy  build,  and  occupy  comparatively 
small  floor  space.  The  peculiarity  of  the  construction  of  the 


310 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


machine  is  that  both  the  steam  and  compression  cylinder 
piston  rods  are  connected  to  the  same  cross-head,  which 
works  between  the  two  cylinders.  The  steam  cylinder  is 
below  and  in  a  direct  line  with  the  compression  cylinder. 
This  allows  a  direct  push  and  pull  on  the  piston  rods,  calcu- 
lated to  remove  all  strain  from  the  crank  shaft  and  connect- 
ing- rods,  and  thus  reduce  the  friction  to  a  minimum. 

A  water  jacket  surrounds  the  compression  cylinders, 
where  a  small  stream  of  water  is  kept  running-  to  cool  the 
compressor  when  in  motion. 


FlG.    195. — THE  BARBER    TYPE    AMERICAN    COMPRESSION    MACHINE. 

The  compressor  suction  and  discharg-e  valves  work  hori- 
zontally, which  allows  a  very  small  pocket  for  compressed 
g-as,  and  reduces  the  clearance  to  a  minimum. 

The  machine  illustrated  by  Fig-.  195  is  manufactured  by 
the  A.  H.  Barber  Manufacturing-  Co.,  Chicag-o,  U.  S.  A.  It  is 
of  the  horizontal  type,  with  a  double-acting  compressor.  It  is 
built  with  a  box  frame,  with  a  center  crank  for  those  run  by 
belt,  and  a  tang-ye  frame  or  side  crank  when  directly  con- 
nected to  Corliss  or  slide  valve  eng-ine.  The  shaft,  pulley  and 
fly-wheels  are  all  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  compressor. 
The  cylinders  are  let  down  into  the  frame.  A  flat  locomotive 
g-uide  is  used,  thereby  g-iving-  the  machine  a  deep  and  rig-id 
frame,  so  that  it  is  impossible  for  the  cylinder  to  g-et  out  of 
line. 


MACHINERY   FOR  REFRIGERATION.  311 

The  cylinder  and  valv7es  are  entirely  surrounded  by 
water. 

The  valves  and  seats  are  made  of  tool  steel,  and  both  are 
hardened  so  as  to  prevent  pitting"  and  to  increase  their  wear- 
ing- efficiency  to  the  utmost.  The  valves  are  easily  removed 
for  inspection,  without  breaking-  or  disturbing-  any  other 
joint.  The  piston  is  made  as  lig-ht  as  possible,  and  provided 
with  metallic  packing-  ring's.  The  stuffing-  box  is  perfectly 
sealed,  having-  a  double  packing-,  with  an  oil  chamber  in  the 
center.  The  lubricator  is  so  arrang-ed  that  it  oils  the  cylin- 
der, valves  and  piston  rod. 

In  the  suction  conduit,  close  to  the  compressor,  is  placed 
a  strainer,  which  prevents  scales  from  the  system  getting 
into  the  compressor.  The  clearance  is  reduced  to  a  mini- 
mum, and  the  connecting-  rod  is  so  arranged  that  any  wearing 
on  the  crank  shaft  or  g-uide  can  be  easily  adjusted. 

The  Challoner  machine,  illustrated  by  Fig's.  196,  197  and 
198,  belong-s  to  the  inclosed  type  described  in  a  former  chapter. 

The  frame  is  cast  in  one  piece,  having-  two  heavy  ribbed 
flang-es,  and  secured  to  a  bed  plate  cast  in  one  piece,  strongly 
arched  where  frame  rests  upon  it.  Each  end  of  the  frame  is 
provided  with  heavy  circular  removable  flanges  containing 
long-  babbitted  bearings  for  the  crank  shaft  to  rest  in,  and 
extra  long  stuffing  boxes  with  glands  and  nuts  to  prevent 
any  leakage  of  gas  or  oil  around  shaft.  Within  the  frame  the 
bearings  for  the  crank  shaft  are  bolted  in  place  so  as  to  be 
readily  removable.  The  case  is  supplied  with  a  charge  of  oil, 
so  that  all  working  parts  run  in  same,  to  insure  lubrication 
without  exterior  oilers  or  lubricators.  The  top  of  the  case 
is  faced  off  true  and  bored  out  to  receive  the  compressor  cyl- 
inders, which  are  sleeve  castings  and  can  be  removed  and 
replaced  in  case  of  necessity  without  renewing  the  case  or 
frame. 

The  crank  shaft  for  the  small  machines  is  a  solid  steel 
casting,  while  for  the  larger  sized  machines  it  is  a  solid  steel 
casting  for  each  outboard  end,  with  center  crank  of  cast 
steel,  all  put  together  with  turned  faced  male  and  female 
joints,  securely  bolted  with  turned  bolts  in  reamed  holes. 
The  connected  parts  of  shaft  form  a  very  large  bearing  sur- 
face in  the  journals  inside  the  case,  to  insure  permanent 


312 


MACHINERY  FOR   REFRIGERATION. 


alignment  of  the  shaft  and  minimum  wear  of  the  journals. 
The  larger  sizes  of  the  machines  are  provided  with  two  and 
the  smaller  sizes  with  one  extra  heavy  large  band  fly-wheels. 
The  connecting  rods  are  made  of  hammered  iron,  the 
upper  ends  being  bored  out  and  provided  with  hardened 
steel  sleeves  for  bearings  on  the  piston  pins.  The  lower 


FlG.    196. — THE    CHALLONER    TRIPLE    CYLINDER,    SINGLE-ACTING 

COMPRESSOR,    GEO.    CHALLONER 'S   SONS    CO., 

OSHKOSH,  WIS.,   U.   S.  A. 

ends  of  the  rods  are  threaded  and  passed  through  the  yokes 
of  the  crank  stubs,  having  keys  in  the  stub  yokes  to  prevent 
turning  of  the  rod  out  of  line  with  the  crank  and  piston  pins. 
The  larger  size  of  machines  are  provided  with  safety 
heads,  the  action  of  which,  should  the  pistons  be  set  too  close 
to  the  heads,  would  be  to  lift  and  prevent  possibility  of 
knocking  out  a  head. 


MACHINERY   FOR   REFRIGERATION. 


313 


The  suction  valves  are  placed  in  the  pistons,  and  the  dis- 
charg-e  valves  are  placed  in  the  safety  heads  or  in  the  false 
heads.  Both  the  suction  and  discharge  valves  may  be  re- 
moved by  taking-  off  the  pump  heads  and  without  disconnect- 
ing- pipe  connections. 


FlG.   197. — THE  CHALLONER   TRIPLE    CYLINDER,   SINGLE-ACTING 
COMPRESSOR   SECTION. 


The  suction  connection  is  made  to  the  case  below  the 
cylinders  so  that  the  case  is  kept  cool  by  the  return  of  the 
low  temperature  g"as.  The  discharge  connections  are  made 
to  the  cylinders  above  the  safety  heads.  Both  connections 
are  provided  with  suitable  stop  valves,  and  by-pass  connection 
is  arrang-ed  so  that  the  machine  can  readily  be  reversed  to 
pump  the  g-as  from  the  high  pressure  to  the  low  pressure 


314  MACHINERY   FOR   REFRIGERATION. 

side  of  system.  A  purge  valve  is  also  placed  on  the  discharge 
connection  so  that  the  case  may  be  pumped  out  for  opening 
and  examining,  merely  with  a  few  turns  of  the  crank  shaft, 
and  all  air  entering  the  case  when  opened  can  be  discharged 
to  the  atmosphere,  thereby  preventing  accumulation  of  per- 
manent gases  in  the  system. 


FlG.    198. — THE    CHALLONER    TRIPLE    CYLINDER,    SINGLE-ACTING 
COMPRESSOR,    END   VIEW. 

On  page  124  reference  is  made  to  the  many  devices 
that  have  been  brought  forward  by  the  inventive  skill  of 
engineers,  for  the  purpose  of  distributing  the  work  of  a 
compressor  piston  more  evenly,  in  relation  to  the  motive 
power.  In  Fig.  199  there  is  an  elevation  of  a  quite  recent 
design,  known  as  the  "Ideal"  machine,  and  built  by  the  Ideal 
Refrigerating  and  Manufacturing  Co.,  of  Chicago.  It  will 


MACHINERY   FOR   REFRIGERATION. 


315 


be  seen  that  the  diameter  of  the  crank  pin  circle  is  much 
greater  than  the  stroke  of  the  piston;  and  that,  as  the  con- 


FlG.    199. — SECTION  OF  IDEAL  REFRIGERATING   AND    MANUFACTURING 
CO.  'S    MACHINE,    CHICAGO,   U.    S.    A. 

necting-  rod  pulls  the  two  members  of  the  toggle  joint  toward 
the  vertical  position  (where  the  joint  pins  are  in  a  straig-ht 
line)  the  force  available  to  move  the  piston  gradually 


316 


MACHINERY   FOR   REFRIGERATION. 


approaches  the  infinite,  apart  from  the  toggle  action  of  the 
crank  itself.  Fig-.  200  shows  graphically  how  the  moments 
of  resistance  to  the  turning  of  the  crank  shaft  differ  from  an 
ordinary  direct  connection;  the  cam-shaped  diagram  drawn 
in  full  line  representing,  in  the  radial  lengths  from  the  crank 
pin  circle,  the  resultants  from  the  theoretical  compressor 
diagram  above.  The  dotted  figure  corresponds  with  that 
resulting  from  a  direct  connection  from  the  crank  to  the 
piston  rod  cross-head,  like  Figs.  98  and  99. 

As  an  effect  of  this  toggle  action  it  is  apparent  that  the 
first  half  of  the  compressing  stroke,  from  position  0  to  posi- 
tion 3,  is  made  by  the  piston,  while  the  crank  pin  travels 


/Ing. le  A.refiresent5  morion  of  crank 

ftrfa/f stroke  of  Piston 
Angle  B  represents  motion  of  crank 
/or  one  sufti part  of  Piston  sfrote 


.  200. — DIAGRAM    SHOWING   EFFECT   OF   THE   MOTION   IN 
' '  IDEAL  ' '    MACHINE. 


through  less  than  one-sixth  of  a  revolution;  but  that  during 
the  second  half  of  the  piston's  stroke,  from  position  3  to  6 
(where  most  of  the  work  is  concentrated),  the  crank  pin 
moves  through  rather  more  than  two-sixths  of  its  course. 

The  manufacturers  of  this  machine  claim  to  know  from 
actual  experience  that  the  effect  the  intermitting  motion  of 
the  cam-head  on  piston  has  on  the  valve  is  to  prolong  the  life 
of  same  more  than  double,  compared  to  that  in  an  ordinary 
crank  motion  machine.  This  is  due,  it  is  argued,  to  the  pro- 
longed stop  caused  by  the  crank  passing  over  the  dead  center, 
and  the  toggle  being  in  a  straight  line  with  the  piston  rod  at 
the  same  time.  The  advantage  claimed  is  that  it  gives  the 
valve  ample  time  to  get  seated,  and  all  the  gas  is  discharged 


MACHINERY   FOR   REFRIGERATION, 


317 


from  the  cylinder,  and  not  drawn  back  into  it  on  the  return 
stroke,  thereby  developing- a  very  high  efficiency. 

Owing  to  the  throw  of  the  crank  being-  greater  than  the 
stroke  of  the  piston,  the  stress,  and,  therefore,  the  friction 


and  wear  on  the  crank  pin,  is  reduced  to  that  extent  by  the 
tog-gle  device. 

Fig-s.  201,  202  and  203  illustrate  the  class  "A"  and  class 
"B"  "Vulcan  "  refrigerating  and  ice  making  machines,  man- 


318 


MACHINERY   FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


ufactured  by  the  Vulcan  Iron  Works,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
These  machines  are   furnished   in  sizes  up  to  ten  tons  re- 


FIG.  202. — "VULCAN"  COMPRESSOR,  CLASS  "A." 

frig-crating-  capacity.     Machines  of  larg-er   sizes  are  of  the 
horizontal  double-acting-  type  (class  UD"). 


MACHINERY   FOR   REFRIGERATION. 


319 


These  special  styles  were  designed  to  meet  the  de- 
mands for  small  machines  that  would  embody  simplicity  of 
desig-n,  construction  and  operation,  and  include  a  number  of 
distinctive  features. 

The  compressor  is  vertical,  single-acting-,  and  of  the  in- 
closed type,  the  working-  parts  being- automatically  lubricated 


FIG.  203. — "VULCAN"  COMPRESSOR,  CLASS  "B,"  WITH  STEAM  ENGINE. 


by  the  oil  in  body  of  machine.  (See  sectional  view,  Fig-.  201.) 
The  cylinder  opens  into  crank  chamber,  the  sides  of  which 
form  the  supporting-  frame,  thereby  bringing-  the  cylinder 
and  shaft  close  tog-ether,  and  doing-  away  with  the  long-  con- 
nections otherwise  made  necessary  by  piston  rods  and  cross- 
heads,  and  making-  this  compressor  a  compact,  strong-  and 


320  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

accessible  machine.  The  crank  is  forged  on  end  of  heavy 
steel  shaft,  which  passes  through  stuffing  box  in  side  of  crank 
chamber.  The  crank  pin  is  of  special  construction,  having 
hardened  steel  sleeve  held  in  place  by  collar.  The  piston  is 
operated  by  a  crank  working  in  box  that  slides  in  a  yoke  that 
is  made  part  of  the  piston,  the  yoke  having  a  guide  at  bottom, 
and  being  guided  by  the  piston  at  the  top.  The  crank  cham- 
ber is  provided  with  a  removable  cover.  When  machine  is 
in  operation  the  body  of  machine  is  filled  with  oil  to  a  point 
just  above  stuffing  box  of  crank  shaft,  the  height  of  the  oil 
being  shown  by  a  gauge  glass,  the  oil  acting  as  a  lubricant  for 
the  moving  parts  and  also  as  a  seal  for  stuffing  box  of  crank 
shaft.  The  body  of  machine  is  separated  from  the  ammonia 
cylinder  by  a  dividing  or  packing  ring  (R),  through  which 
the  trunk  or  piston  works,  in  such  manner  as  to  admit  only 
sufficient  oil  to  lubricate  cylinder.  The  suction  valve,  which 
is  fitted  with  a  safety  cage,  is  placed  in  center  of  piston  (the 
ammonia  gas  enters  body  of  machine  below  piston)  and  the 
discharge  valve  is  placed  in  cylinder  head. 

A  dirt  trap  (U)  is  attached  to  each  compressor  body, 
into  which  the  ammonia  suction  pipe  discharges,  intended  to 
prevent  the  passage  into  ammonia  cylinder,  of  any  scale, 
dirt,  etc.  The  relief  valve  (S)  is  for  convenience  in  starting 
the  machine.  Wearing  parts  are  supplied  with  removable 
bushings. 

A  class  A  machine  has  only  one  ammonia  cylinder.  (See 
Fig.  201.)  A  class  B  machine  has  duplex  ammonia  cylinders 
of  the  class  A  type. 

The  class  A  machines  are  self-contained,  /.  £.,  the  ammo- 
nia compressor,  ammonia  condenser,  steam  engine,  ammonia 
and  oil  receivers,  ammonia  gauges  and  pipe  connections  (also 
brine  pump,  if  required,)  are  all  placed  on  one  bed  plate,  thus 
making  a  very  compact  arrangement,  and  especially  suitable 
for  use  on  steamships. 

Figs.  204  and  205  show  in  perspective  and  cross-section 
the  construction  of  the  Stallman  compressor,  manufactured 
by  the  Creamery  Package  Manufacturing  Co.,  of  Chicago,  111. 
This  machine  is  of  the  vertical  single-acting,  water-jacketed 
type,  and  made  in  sizes  from  two  to  ten  tons  refrigerating  ca- 
pacity. The  lower  parts  of  the  cylinders  are  cored  out,  so  as 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


321 


to  form  a  series  of  ports  leading-  from  the  suction  inlet  around 
the  piston  and  into  the  cylinders,  when  the  pistons  are  at  the 
bottom  or  limit  of  their  downward  stroke.  The  filling- of  the 
cylinders  having-  been  partially  effected  by  the  passing-  of  the 
g-as  throug-h  the  suction  valves  in  the  pistons  during-  their 
downward  stroke,  is  thus  at  the  very  end  of  the  stroke  fully 


FlG.   204. — PERSPECTIVE   VIEW    STALLMAN    COMPRESSOR,    CREAMERY 
PACKAGE    MFG.    CO.,    CHICAGO,   U.   S.   A. 

completed,  and  the  full  evaporating-  pressure  secured  in  the 
cylinders  by  the  unobstructed  passing1  of  the  g-as  throug-h 
these  ports.  The  upper  part  of  the  cylinder  is  enlarg-ed,  and 
upon  the  shoulder  thus  formed  rests  the  discharge  valve 
seat,  which  is  made  of  tool  steel  and  is  pressed  into  position 
before  the  finishing-  cut  is  taken.  It  is  then  bored  out  with 

(21) 


322  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

the  cylinder  and  forms  a  part  of  the  cylinder  wall.  Immedi- 
ately above  the  valve  seat,  connected  with  the  enlarged  part 
of  the  cylinder  and  branching-  off  at  rig-ht  angles,  is  the  out- 
let port,  which  receives  the  discharge  pipe. 

The  discharg-e  valve  is  made  of  steel.  It  is  turned  up 
from  the  solid,  with  a  disc-like  bottom  larger  than  the  bore 
of  the  cylinder,  thus  extending  over  and  resting-  upon  the  tool 
steel  seat  above  described. 

On  its  upward  stroke  the  piston  passes  through  the  dis- 
charge valve  seat  and  comes  into  metallic  contact  with  the 
valve  itself,  discharging  completely  the  contents  of  the  cylin- 
der past  the  valve,  and  leaving  no  gas  to  re-expand.  There 
is  therefore  absolutely  no  clearance  and  consequently  no  loss 
of  efficiency  from  this  source. 

The  valves,  being  large,  have  but  slight  movements  and 
practically  instantaneous  action,  and  at  the  same  time  give 
very  large  areas  of  openings  that  permit  the  rapid  passing  of 
large  volumes  of  gas.  The  valve  and  cylinder  construction 
of  this  compressor  should  give  the  maximum  results  for 
power  expended. 

Attached  to  and  forming  part  of  the  discharge  valve  is  a 
band-like  extension  that  takes  the  place  of  a  valve  stem,  the 
enlarged  portion  of  the  cylinder  forming  the  guide  for  the 
valve.  In  the  center  of  the  discharge  valve  is  a  boss  or  cen- 
ter, around  which  is  placed  a  spiral  spring.  This  spring  is 
provided  with  a  screw,  passing  through  the  cylinder  head, 
for  adjusting  its  tension,  not  shown  by  cut.  The  piston  is 
fitted  with  cast  iron  snap  rings,  turned  to  bore  of  cylinders. 

In  the  shell  of  the  piston  is  the  suction  valve  guide,  held 
in  position  by  the  steel  valve  seat,  which  is  threaded  to  and 
surrounds  the  upper  part  of  the  piston  shell. 

The  cylinders  are  mounted  upon  frames  containing  the 
shaft  bearings  and  guides  to  bring  all  strains  directly  upon 
the  frames  and  not  upon  bearings  in  a  separate  bed  plate;  in 
this  construction  the  rigidity  of  the  alignment  is  assured. 
A  heavy  box  pattern  bed  plate  securely  ties  the  frames  in 
position,  making  a  compact  and  yet  convenient  arrangement 
throughout. 

The  construction  permits  of  operating  the  compressors 
independent  of  each  other  where  conditions  of  varying  tern- 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


323 


peratures  and  consequent  varying  back  pressures  prevail, 
such  as  in  plants  for  both  ice  making-  and  refrigerating-,  and 


FlG.    205. — CROSS-SECTION    STAT.LMAN    COMPRESSOR,    CREAMERY 
PACKAGE    MFG.   CO.,    CHICAGO,   U.   S.   A. 

where  freezing  rooms  are  used  in  connection  with  ordinary 
cold  storage.  Independent  suction  connections  can  be  made 
to  the  compressors  under  such  circumstances. 


324 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


325 


FURTHER   REMARKS   CONCERNING    WATER    TUBE   BOILERS. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  decide  whether  the  water  tube 
boiler  is  at  present  creating-  a  greater  revolution  at  sea  or  on 
shore;  possibly  it  is  more  so  in  connection  with  steam  vessels. 
One  of  the  many  lines  of  mail  steamers  trading-  to  Sydney 
(now  said  to  be  the  fourth  most  important  port  for  shipping 
in  the  world)  has  been  carrying-  the  Belleville  boilers  for 
years,  and  they  have  obtained  a  footing- in  the  En g-lish,  Amer- 
ican and  foreig-n  navies. 

For  present  purposes  we  are  more  concerned  with  land 
types,  and  as  no  illustrations  appear  in  the  sub-section  com- 


FlG.  207.  — FIRE  TUBE  AS  AFFECTED 
BY   SOOT    AND   DIRT. 


FlG.     208. — WATER      TUBE      AS      AF- 
FECTED BY  SOOT  AND  DIRT. 


mencing-  on  pag-e  205,  Fig-.  206  will  g-ive  a  good  idea  of  how 
nearly  every  inch  of  such  boilers  is  utilized  for  heating  sur- 
face. In  this  figure  the  removable  covers  for  scaling  the 
tubes  are  clearly  seen,  as  well  as  the  doors  in  the  brick  work 
to  enable  the  sooty  deposit  to  be  removed  from  their  external 
surfaces. 

As  Figs.  122  and  123  illustrate  the  advantages  of  fire 
tubes  in  connection  with  the  deposit  of  scale,  it  is  only  fair  to 
g-ive  an  illustration  by  which  the  advocates  of  water  tube 
boilers  show  their  great  advantages  with  regard  to  the  de- 
posit of  soot  and  dirt  from  the  fire. 

It  is  maintained,  and  is  no  doubt  true,  that  if  the  draft  is 
weak  and  the  ordinary  tubes  are  not  attended  to,  they 


326 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


h— * 


FlG.  209.— EVAPORATOR  FOR  WATER  HEAVILY  CHARGED 
WITH  MINERALS. 


FIG.  210.  FIG.  211. 

END  ELEVATION  AND  SECTION  OF  (SO  CALLED)  SCOTCH  BOILER. 


MAgHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  327 

will  practically  soot  up  completely  in  time;  while  only  a  lim- 
ited amount  of  soot  will  lodge  on  the  water  tube,  whether  it  is 
looked  after  or  not.  (See  Fig's.  207  and  208.) 

In  fitting-  up  a  large  ice  factory  with  water  tube  boilers, 
and  modern  distilling  plant,  there  would  be  no  difficulty 
(with  apparatus  such  as  that  described  in  Chapter  XIX)  in 
insuring  the  tubes  being  kept  absolutely  free  from  deposit, 
by  first  evaporating  all  the  water  supplied  as  feed.  At  sea 
special  provision  is  now  made  for  supplying  the  "  make  up  " 
as  it  is  termed,  and  one  of  the  evaporators-used  would  be  ap- 
plicable for  smaller  installations.  Fig.  209  is  an  evaporator, 
so  constructed  that  when  the  copper  steam  coils  are  coated 
up  on  the  outside,  by  the  salts  of  lime,  magnesia  or  other 
mineral  removed  from  the  water,  they  can  be  swung  right 
clear  out  of  the  casing  for  easy  cleaning. 

Internally  fired  boilers  with  return  tubes  have  many  ad- 
vocates, and  although  primarily  a  marine  type,  they  are  much 
appreciated  in  many  factories  on  land.  In  the  United  States 
they  seem  to  have  gotten  the  name  of  "Scotch"  boilers — why 
is  not  very  clear,  as  they  are  not  so  called  in  England  or  Aus- 
tralia. Figs.  210  and  211  represent  two  views  of  this  type, 
designed  for  land  use  with  a  good  chimney  draft  (for  sea  the 
proportion  is  generally  much  shorter  in  relation  to  the  dia- 
meter). It  is  evident  that  with  such  boilers  in  an  ice  factory, 
near  to  brine  tanks  or  cold  rooms,  their  shells  should  be  well 
covered  with  the  best  non-conducting  composition,  to  prevent 
the  radiation  of  heat. 

Figs.  212  and  213  are  sections  of  R.  Munroe  &  Sons' 
safety  and  vertical  water  tube  boilers,  made  at  Pittsburg,  Pa., 
U.  S.  A.,  and  widely  used  in  America. 

All  the  plates  used  in  the  construction  of  this  boiler  are 
made  of  open  hearth  homogeneous  flange  steel.  There  are 
two  water  chambers  made  in  exact  duplicate  of  each  other, 
the  outer  heads  of  which  are  dished.  The  outer  head  of  the 
front  chamber  contains  from  two  to  six  patented  eclipse  man- 
holes according  to  the  size  of  the  boiler.  These  manheads 
permit  ,of  free  access  to  all  of  the  horizontal  tubes.  The 
thickness  of  the  material  used  in  these  water  chambers  varies 
from  five-sixteenths  to  seven-sixteenths,  according  to  the  size 
of  the  boiler.  The  chambers  are  made  extra  strong-  by  being 


328 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


329 


FIG.  213.— MUNROE'S  VERTICAL  WATER  TUBE  BOILER,  AMERICAN  TYPE. 


330  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

double  or  triple  staggered,  riveted  at  the  point  where  the 
sheets  are  lapped.  The  tube  sheets  of  water  chambers  are 
five-eighths  of  an  inch  thick,  and  made  of  homogeneous  flange 
steel.  Riveted  on  to  the  outer  heads  of  the  water  chambers 
are  from  four  to  eight  angle  braces,  according  to  the  size  of 
the  boiler,  and  connected  to  the  braces  are  connecting  or 
tension  rods.  These  rods  are  made  of  soft  iron,  and  they  are 
connected  to  the  braces  by  pins  varying  from  three-fourths 
of  an  inch  to  one  and  one-quarter  inches  in  diameter.  The 
tension  rods  are  from  one  inch  to  one  and  one-half  inches  in 
diameter;  they  have  a  swivel  on  one  end,  so  that  they  can  be 
easily  removed  at  any  time  for  cleaning  or  repairs. 

The  steam  and  water  drum  is  made  of  homogeneous 
flange  steel,  same  as  the  water  chambers,  the  outer-  heads 
of  the  drum  being  dished,  the  front  or  rear  head  containing 
a  manhole,  placed  in  the  head  opposite  to  stack. 

The  water  legs  are  made  of  the  same  material  as  the 
drum  and  chambers,  and  they  are  of  ample  size  to  meet  the 
requirements  of  the  various  boilers,  the  front  leg  being 
larger  than  the  rear,  so  as  to  allow  a  large  liberating  surface. 
The  water  legs  are  double  riveted  at  their  flanges  to  the  water 
chambers  and  steam  and  water  drums. 

The  horizontal  tubes  are  four  inches  in  diameter,  and 
vary  in  length  according  to  the  size  of  the  boiler.  They  are 
placed  in  a  staggered  position  in  the  tube  sheets  and  ex- 
panded with  a  Dudgeon  expander,  then  turned  over. 

The  boiler  is  set  up  on  brick  work  and  suspended  bv 
heavy  cast  iron  lugs  riveted  at  their  proper  angles  on  to  the 
water  chambers.  Each  boiler  has  four  lugs,  two  on  each 
water  chamber. 

Over  the  grate  bars  and  under  front  water  chamber  is 
placed  an  arch,  and  immediately  over  the  tubes  there  is 
another  arch  made  of  fire  brick;  it  is  built  from  side  wall  to 
side  wall  of  the  boiler,  and  it  runs  from  the  front  water  leg 
to  a  point,  changing  according  to  the  size  of  the  boiler,  so  as 
to  allow  a  sufficient  draft  area.  Resting  on  the  top  row  of 
drop  or  circulating  tubes  is  the  tile  arch  to  form  a  cover  for 
the  draft  area;  the  other  end  of  the  arch  resting  on  the  top 
of  the  side  walls.  The  pipes  in  side  walls  are  of  a  diameter  to 
admit  sufficient  oxygen  to  facilitate  combustion.  As  the  tubes 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  331 

are  on  an  angle  of  one  and  one-fourth  inches  to  the  foot,  good 
results  must  be  obtained,  as  the  heat  units  impinge  directly 
on  the  tubes,  and  as  the  tubes  are  staggered,  the  heat  units 
are  distributed  over  the  entire  heating  surface.  Ten  square 
feet  of  heating  surface  is  allowed  per  horse  power. 

The  water  is  fed  through  a  pipe  which  is  connected 
to  the  steam  and  water  drum  at  a  point  directly  opposite  the 
center  of  the  rear  water  leg,  and  which  extends  almost  to  the 
center  of  the  rear  water  chamber,  and  steam  is  taken  out  of 
the  opposite  end. 

THE    HOLDEN   ICE    MAKING   SYSTEM. 

Although  nothing  has  heretofore  been  said  as  to  the 
relative  merits  of  the  can  and  plate  systems  of  ice  making, 
as  they  form  quite  a  separate  question  from  those  that  have 
been  discussed,  .the  opportunity  may  be  here  taken  to 
describe  an  entirelv  different  system  of  ice  making,  which 
has  been  recently  introduced  by  Mr.  D.  L.  Holden,  of  Phila- 
delphia, U.  S.  A.,  with  what  ultimate  success  remains  to  be 
seen. 

Reference  was  made  on  pages  71  and  74  to  the  effect  of 
velocity  and  thickness  of  material  in  its  effect  on  the  conduc- 
tion of  heat.  The  effect  of  the  low  conductivity  of  ice  in 
reducing  the  ratio  at  which  it  forms,  either  in  the  can  or  on 
the  plate,  is  well  known  and  exercises  a  great  influence  in 
restricting  the  thickness  of  the  blocks  as  made  in  actual 
practice.  Mr.  Holden  makes  a  wide  departure  from  the 
usual  method  (although  his  ideas  are  not  new  as  applied  on  a 
small  scale  for  ice  cream  freezing),  and  constructs  his  refrig- 
erator as  a  hollow  cvlinder,  which  rotates  in  the  water  to  be 
frozen.  The  liquid  ammonia  is  carried  in  through  one  of 
the  trunnions,  and  the  other  one  is  connected  either  to  the 
re-absorber  in  the  case  of  an  absorption  plant,  or  to  the  suc- 
tion side  of  the  compressor  in  a  compression  system;  and  the 
evaporation  of  the  ammonia  in  this  cylinder  freezes  the  water 
in  contact  with  its  metallic  surface  very  rapidly. 

According  to  accounts  appearing  in  contemporary  jour- 
nals, this  rate  of  freezing  is  so  fast  that  it  would  incrust  the 
cylinder  at  the  rate  of  a  quarter  of  an  inch  per  minute;  but  as 
soon  as  it  is  formed,  it  is  cut  or  shaved  off  by  a  set  of  rotary 


332  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

knives,  and  these  ice  shaving's  are  carried,  by  a  creeper  or 
conveyor  to  hydraulic  presses.  When  inclosed  by  brass 
molds  and  under  a  pressure  of  between  300  and  400  pounds 
to  the  inch,  this  mush  ice  is  so  compressed  that  all  the  water 
and  air  is  got  rid  of,  and  regulation  is  brought  about.  This 
regulation  produces  blocks  of  compact  and  solid  ice,  but 
whether  by  sufficient  pressure  crystal  clear  ice  can  be  thus 
made  is  not  stated.  It  is  claimed,  however,  that  ice  can  be 
made  cheaper  in  this  manner.  If  the  process  really  turns 
out  to  be  cheaper,  then  it  must  be  so  by  the  saving-  effected 
in  the  plant — labor  and  accessories  connected  with  the  actual 
ice  making-.  It  certainly  cannot  make  more  ice  with  a  given 
amount  of  refrigerating  effect  as  produced  by  a  machine, 
than  an  ordinary  refrigerating1  tank  and  metal  molds  can  do, 
if  there  is  careful  insulation  and  absence  of  waste  in  thawing 
out. 

IN   CONCLUSION. 

In  taking-  leave  of  the  reader  the  author  would  say  that, 
in  commencing  this  task  he  had  no  idea  that  his  original 
paper  would  expand  to  the  dimensions  this  work  has  now 
assumed,  but  he  is  now  quite  aware  that  there  are  sufficient 
interesting-  matters  omitted  in  connection  with  the  machinery 
of  refrig-eration  to  make  another  volume.  He  cannot  let  the 
opportunity  pass  without  expressing-  his  obligation  to  the 
publishers  for  the  handsome  dress  they  have  put  him  into, 
and  for  their  artistic  reproduction  of  his  original  drawings. 

To  builders  of  refrigerating  machinery  who  have  kindly 
forwarded  him  catalogues  and  information  he  here  expresses 
his  obligation,  and  as  gratitude  is  said  to  be  "a  lively  sense 
of  favors  to  come,"  he  hopes  to  be  the  recipient  of  any  new 
editions  that  may  be  published.  To  such  builders  or  mana- 
gers of  refrigerating  machinerv  as  may  be  numbered  among 
the  readers  of  the  ideas  herein  set  forth,  he  would  say  that 
any  information  or  suggestions  in  connection  with  that 
department  of  engineering,  with  which  they  may  favor  him, 
will  be  much  appreciated  and  duly  acknowledged. 


APPENDIX  I 

TABLES. 


334 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


TABLE    SHOWING    THE     MEAN    PRESSURE    OF    STEAM    IN 
CYLINDERS  OF  COMPOUND  AND  TRIPLE- 
EXPANSION    ENGINES. 

WITH     VARIOUS     INITIAL     STEAM     PRESSURES,     EXPANDING     DOWN     TO     A 
NOMINAL  TERMINAL    PRESSURE    OF    15    I.BS.  PER  SQUARE  INCH. 


Points 

ABSOLUTE  PRESSURE. 

of  cut-off 

Mean 

Ratio  of 
Expansion,  or 
number  of 
times  steam 
is  expanded. 

Hyperbolic 
Logarithms  of 
the  Ratio  of 
Expansion. 

of  the 
Stroke, 
reckoned 
from  the 
commence- 
ment. 

pressure  dur- 
i.ig-  the  stroke, 
the  initial 
pressure  being- 
taken  as  =  1. 

Initial 
pressure  in  Ib. 
per  square 
suitable  for 
given  ratio  of 

Mean 
pressure  in 
Ib.  per 
square  inch. 

expansion. 

6 

1.7918 

j 

0.4653 

90 

41.8 

6M 

1.8326 

245 

0.4532 

93.75 

42.4 

6% 

1.8718 

123 

0  .  4418 

97.5 

43 

1.9095 

247 

0.4310 

101.25 

43.4 

7 

1.9459 

1 

0.4208 

105 

44 

7M 

1.9810 

249 

0  4111 

108.75 

44.6 

7% 

2.0149 

A 

0.4002 

112.5 

.    45 

7% 

2.0477 

0.3932 

116.25 

45.6 

8 

2.0794 

1 
8 

0.3849 

120 

46 

8M 

2.1102 

0.3779 

122.75 

46.3 

8% 

2.1401 

127 

0.3694 

127.5 

47 

2.1691 

345 

0.3621 

131.25               47.5 

9 

2.1972 

9 

0.3552 

135                    47.9 

9M 

2.2246 

0.3486 

138.75               48.3 

9% 

2.2513 

129 

0.3122 

142.5                 48.7 

9% 

2.2773 

¥ 

0.3361 

146.25               49 

10 

2.3026 

0.3302 

150                     49.5 

ioM 

2.3279 

--T 

0.3246 

153.75               49.8 

10% 

2.3513 

2\ 

0.3191 

157.5                 50.2 

10% 

2.3749 

0.3139 

161.25               50.6 

11 

2.3979 

A 

0.3089 

165                    50.9 

HM 

2.4201 

44S 

0  .  3010 

168.75               51.2 

11% 

2.4430 

0.2993 

172.5                 51.6 

11% 

2  .  4636 

? 

0.2947             176.25 

51.9 

12 

2.4849 

0.2904             180 

52.2 

12M 

2.5052 

* 

0.2861              183.75 

52.3 

12% 

2.5262 

0.2821              187.5 

52.8 

12% 

2.5455 

J\              0.2780             191.25 

53 

13 

2.5649 

jig 

0.2742             195 

53.4 

1334               2.5840 

JL 

0.2704 

198.75 

53.8 

13\4 

2.6027 

227 

0.2668 

202.5 

54 

13% 

2.6211 

545 

0.2633 

206.25 

54.2 

14 

2  .  6391 

1 

0.2599 

210 

54.5 

14M 

2.6567 

547 

0.2566 

213.75 

54.8 

14% 

2.6740 

229 

0.2533 

217.5 

55 

14% 

2.6913 

549 

0.2502 

221.25 

55.3 

15 

2.7081 

0.2472 

225 

55.6 

15% 

2.7408 

g2j 

0.2412 

232.5 

56 

16 

2.7726 

A 

0.2358 

240 

56.5 

MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


335 


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•saqoui 
oi  93^0  j;s 


336 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


PERCENTAGE  OF  SAVING  OF  FUEL  BY  HEATING  FEED 

WATER. 

The  following-  table  gives  the  percentage  of  saving-  for  a  •  steam  pres- 
sure of  sixty  pounds  per  square  inch,  with  various  initial  and  final 
temperatures  of  the  feed: 


CTs  <»  1>  ^5  10  rj-  ro  Cl  »H  rH  ri  O  ON  GO  r^  MD  VO  10 

O  rH  c<J  fO  •*  iO  \O  I>  GO  O^  O^  O  O  rH*  C<J  rO  ^t  vo'  ^O  1>^  CO  O\ 


o  M  M 

^^iO 


C 


jo 


OrH 

dM 


OrHC^ 
C'IOn 


NOrHcsi 

rinrl 


rl-  ro  <NJ  O  C     GO 


i>'OfslCia\l^iOrOrHGOvOrr5C5 

rH  O  Cl  O\  t^  &  if)  ^t  CO  rH  O  ON  GO 


OOrHC-l 

nOlClC) 


<•<*•  10  v     ^    J>  00  O\  O  rH 


O  rH 

riri 


'* 

Cq 


ooooooooooooriooooooooooo 

rHrHC^CO^l-lOv^t^GOO>OrHrHr)r<0-^-«O'Or^X<^OrHr^ 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


337 


WEIGHT    OF   CAST   IRON    PIPES    IN    POUNDS 

PER   LINEAL    FOOT. 


si 

fcl 

THICK 

.NESS  OF 

METAL. 

y 

~Q 

M  inch. 

^inch. 

V*  inch. 

H  inch. 

Kinch. 

y»  inch. 

1  inch. 

\y&  inch. 

1%  inch. 

Inch. 
1 

Pounds. 
3.06 

Pounds. 
5.06 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

1W 

3.68 

5.98 

1^ 

4.29 

6.90 

9.82 

15< 

4.91 

7.83 

11.05 

2 

5.53 

8.75 

12.27 

16.11 

2^ 

6.14 

9.66 

13.05 

17.64 

2^ 

6.74 

10.58 

14.72 

19.17 

2»4 

7.36 

11.50 

15.95 

20.70 

7.98 

12.43 

17.18 

22.19 

27.62 

3^ 

8.59 

13.34 

18.35 

23.78 

29.45 

3iJ 

9.20 

14.21 

19.64 

25.31 

31.03 

37.53 

3%r 

9.76 

15.19 

20.86 

26.85 

33.13 

39.73 

4 

10.44 

16.11 

22.10 

28.38 

34.98 

41.88 

49  09 

4\i 

11.10 

17.08 

23.37 

29.97 

36.87 

44  08 

51  60 

& 

11.66 

17.94 

24.54 

31.44 

38.65 

46.17 

53.99 

62.12 

4^4 

12.27 

18.89 

.25.77 

32.98 

40.50 

48.32 

56.45 

64.89 

5 

s% 

Sl/2 

s% 

6 
6% 
6K 

6M 

7M 
7K 
7# 
8 

8M 

8H 

8M 
9 

9M 
9^ 

12  88 
13.50 
14.11 
14.73 
15.34 
15.95 
16.57 
17.18 
17.79 
18.41 
19.03 
19.64 
20.02 
20.86 
21.69 
22.09 
22.71 

19.78 
20.71 
21.63 
22.55 
23.47 
24.39 
25.31 
26.23 
27.15 
28.08 
29.00 
29.69 
30.83 
31.74 
32.90 
33.59 
34.52 
35.43 
36  36 

26.99 
28.23 
29.45 
30.68 
31.91 
33.13 
34.36 
35.59 
36.82 
38.05 
39.05 
40.50 
41.71 
42.95 
44.40 
45.40 
46.64 
47.86 
49  09 

34.51 
36.05 
37.58 
39.12 
40.65 
42.18 
43.72 
45.26 
46.79 
48.10 
49.86 
51.38 
52.92 
54.45 
56.21 
57.52 
59.07 
60.59 
6">  13 

42.33 
44.18 
46.02 
47.86 
49.70 
51.54 
53.39 
55.23 
56.84 
58.91 
60.74 
62.59 
64.42 
66.26 
68.33 
69.95 
71.80 
73.63 
75  47 

50.46 
52.62 
54.76 
56.91 
59.06 
61.21 
63.36 
65.28 
67.65 
69.79 
71.95 
74.09 
76.23 
78.38 
80.76 
82.68 
84.84 
86.97 
89  13 

58.90 
61.36 
63.81 
66.27 
68.73 
71.18 
73.41 
76.09 
78.53 
81.00 
83.45 
85.90 
88.35 
90.81 
93.49 
95.72 
98.18 
100.63 
1f\T.  09 

67.64 
70.41 
73.17 
75.94 
78.70 
81.23 
84.22 
86.97 
89.74 
92.50 
95.26  : 
98.02 
100.78 
103.54  1 
106.53 
109.06  • 
111.84 
114.59 

mis 

76.69 
79.77 
82.84 
85.91 
88.75 
92.04 
95.10 
98.18 
101.24 
104.31 
107.38 
110.45 
113.51 
116.58 
119.87 
122.72 
125.80 
128.85 
m9A 

9% 
10 

ioM 

lOfc 
10^ 



37.28 
38.20 

50.32 
51.54 

52.77 
54.00 
55  22 

63.66 
65.20 
66.73 
68.26 
69  80 

77.32 
79.16 
80.99 
82.84 
84  67 

91.28 
93.42 
95.57 
97.71 
99  86 

105.54 
108.00 
110.44 
112.90 
115  35 

120.12 
122.87 
125.63 

128.39  ' 
131  15 

134.99 
138.06 
141  .  12 
144.19 
147  26 

11 

56  46 

71  33 

86  5^ 

107  01 

117  81 

133  9^ 

150  33 

11M 

72  86 

88  35 

104  15 

190  96 

136  67 

153  40 

1m 

74  39 

90  19 

106  30  '• 

IT*  71 

139  44 

156  44 

\\\ 

75  93 

92  04 

108  45 

125  18 

142  18 

159  54 

12 

77  46 

93  60 

110  60 

127  60 

144  96 

162  60 

(22) 


338 


MACHINERY   FOR  REFRIGERATION, 


USEFUL  TABLES  AND    MEMORANDA  RELATING  TO 
PRIME  MOVERS. 

AREAS  OF  CIRCLES  ADVANCING  BY  EIGHTHS  OF  AN  INCH. 


Diam.    0 

y* 

X 

% 

l/2 

% 

M 

'% 

Diam. 

0 

.0000 

.0122 

.0490 

.1104 

.1963 

.3068 

.4417 

.6013 

0 

1 

.7854 

.9940 

1.227 

1.484   1.767 

2.073 

2.405 

2.761 

1 

2   3.141 

3.546 

3.976 

4.430 

4.908 

5.411 

5.939 

6.491 

2 

3 

7.068 

7.669 

8.295 

8.946 

9.621 

10.32 

11.04 

11.79 

3 

4 

12.76 

13.36 

14.18 

15.03  !  15.90 

16.80 

17.72 

18.76 

4 

5   19.63 

20.62 

21.64 

22.69 

23.75 

24.85 

25.96 

27.10 

5 

6   28.27 

29.46 

30.67 

31.91 

33.18 

34.47 

35.78 

37.12 

6 

7   38.48 

39.87 

41.28 

42.71 

44.17 

45.66 

47.17 

48.70 

7 

8 

50.26 

51.84 

53.45 

55.08   56.74 

58.42 

60.13 

61.86 

8 

9   63.61 

65.39 

67.20 

69.02 

70.88 

72.75 

74.76 

76.58 

9 

10   78.54 

80.51 

82.51 

84.54 

86.59 

88.66 

90.76 

92.88 

10 

11   95.03 

97.20 

99.40 

101.6 

103.8 

106.1 

108.4 

110  7 

11 

12   113.0 

115.4 

117.8 

120.2 

122.7 

125.1 

127.6   130.1 

12 

13   132.7 

135.2 

137.8 

140.5 

143.1 

145.8 

148.4   151.2 

13 

14 

153.9 

156.6 

159.4 

162.2   165.1 

167.9 

170.8 

173.7 

14 

15 

176.7 

179.6 

182.6 

185.6   188.6 

191.7 

194.8 

197.9 

15 

16 

201.0 

204.2 

207.3 

210.5 

213.8 

217.0 

220.3 

223.6 

16 

17 

226.9 

230.3 

233.7 

237.1 

240.5 

243.9 

247.4 

250.9 

17 

18 

254.4 

258.0 

261.5 

265.1   268.8 

272.4 

276.1 

279.8 

18 

19 

283.5 

287.2 

291.0 

294.8   298.6 

302.4 

306.3 

310.2 

19 

20 

314.1 

318.1 

322.0 

326.0 

330.0 

334.1 

338.1 

342.2 

20 

21 

346.3 

350.4 

354.6 

358.8 

363.0 

367.2 

371.5 

375.8 

21 

22   380.1 

384.4 

388.8 

393.2 

397.6 

402.0 

406.4 

410.9 

22 

23   415.4 

420.0 

424.5 

429.1 

433.7 

438.3 

443.0 

447.6 

23 

24   452.3 

457.1 

461.8 

466.6 

471.4 

476.2 

481.1 

485.9 

24 

25   490.  8 

495.7 

500.7 

505.7 

510.7 

515.7 

520.7 

525.8 

25 

26   530.9 

536.0 

541.1 

546.3 

551.5 

556.7 

562.0 

567.2 

26 

27 

572.5 

577.8 

583.2 

588.5 

593.9 

599.3 

604.8 

610.2 

27 

28 

615.7 

621.2 

625.7 

632.3 

637.9 

643.5 

649.1 

654.8 

28 

29   660.5 

666.2 

671.9 

677.7 

683.4 

689.2 

695.1 

700.9 

.29 

30   706.8 

712.7 

718.6 

724.6 

730.6 

736.6 

742.6 

748.6 

30 

31   754.8 

760.9 

767.0 

773.1 

779.3 

785.5 

791.7 

798.0 

31 

32   804.2 

810.5 

816.9 

823.2 

829.6 

836.0 

842.4 

848.8 

32 

33 

855.3 

861.8 

868.3 

874.8 

881.4 

888.0 

894.6 

901.3 

33 

34 

907.9 

914.6 

921.3 

928.1 

934.8 

941.6 

948.4 

955.3 

34 

35 

962.1 

969.0 

975.9 

982.8 

989.8 

996.8 

1003 

1010 

35 

36 

1017 

1025 

1032 

1039 

1046 

1053 

1060 

1068 

36 

37 

1075 

1082 

1089 

1097 

1104 

1111 

1119 

1126 

37 

38 

1134 

1141 

1149 

1156 

1164 

1171 

1179 

1186 

38 

39 

1194 

1202 

1210 

1217 

1225 

1233 

1241 

1248 

39 

40 

1256 

1264 

1272 

1280 

1288 

1296 

1304 

1312 

40 

41 

1320 

1328 

1336 

1344 

1352 

1360 

1369 

1377 

41 

42 

1385 

1393 

1402 

1410 

1418 

1427 

1435 

1443 

42 

43 

1452 

1460 

1469 

1477  !  1486 

1494 

1503 

1511 

43 

44 

1520 

1529 

1537 

1546  j  1555 

1564 

1572 

1581 

44 

45 

1590 

1599 

1608 

1617  !  1626 

1634 

1643 

1652 

45 

46 

1661 

1671 

1680 

1689 

1698 

1707 

1716 

1725 

46 

47 

1734 

1744 

1753 

1762 

1772 

1781 

1790 

1800 

47 

48 

1809 

1819 

1828 

1837 

1847 

1854 

1868 

1876 

48 

49 

1885 

1895 

1905 

1914 

1924 

1934 

1943 

1953 

49 

50    1963 

1973 

1983 

1993 

2003 

2012 

2022 

2032 

50 

D=Diameter 
A=Area. 

C=Circumference. 
S=Contents  of  Sphere 
B=Contentsof  Cylinder. 


D=  3.14159  or  V  A  -f-  .7854  or  C  X.  31831. 

A=D*X.7854  or  (C  -=-  3. 5446) 2. 

C=D  X  3. 14159  or  3.5446  \'  AT 

S=D3X.5236. 

B  =  AX  lenglh.     (A  being  the  area  of  one  end.) 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


339 


USEFUL  TABLES  AND    MEMORANDA  RELATING  TO 
PRIME  MOVERS. 

CIRCUMFERENCES  OF  CIRCLES  ADVANCING  BY  EIGHTHS  OF  AN  INCH. 


Diam. 

0 

% 

M 

'    % 

% 

% 

M 

% 

Diam. 

0 

.0 

.3927 

.7854 

1.178 

1.570 

1.963 

2.356 

2.748 

0 

1 

3.141 

3.534 

3.927 

!    4.319 

4.712 

5,105 

5.497 

5.890 

1 

2 

6.283 

6.675 

7.068 

7.461 

7.854 

8.246 

8.639 

9.032 

2 

3 

9.424 

9.817 

10.21 

10.60 

10.99 

11.38 

11.78 

12.17 

3 

4 

12.56 

12.95 

13.35 

13.74 

14.13 

14.52 

14.92 

15.31 

4 

5 

15.70 

16.10 

16.49 

16.88 

17.27 

17.67 

18.06 

18.45 

5 

6 

18.88 

19.24 

19.63 

20.02 

20.42 

20.81 

21.20 

21.59 

6 

7 

21.99 

22.38 

22.77 

23.16 

23.56 

23.95 

24.34 

24.78 

7 

8 

25.13 

25.52 

25.91 

26.31 

26.70 

27.09 

27.48 

27.88 

8 

9 

28.27 

28.66 

29.05 

29.45 

29.84 

30.23 

30.63 

31.02 

9 

10 

31.41 

31.80 

32.20 

32.59 

32.98 

33.37 

33.77 

34.16 

10 

11 

34.55 

34.95 

35.34 

35.73 

36.12 

36.52 

36.91 

37.30 

11 

12 

37.69 

38.09 

38.48 

38.87 

39.27 

39.66 

40.05 

40.44 

12 

13 

40.84 

41.23 

41.62 

42.01 

42.41 

42.80 

43.19 

43.58 

13 

14 

43.98 

44.35 

44.76 

45.16 

45.55 

45.94 

46.33 

46.73 

14 

15 

47.12 

47.51 

47.90 

48.30 

48.59 

49.08 

49.48 

49.87 

15 

16 

50.26 

50.65 

51.05 

51.44 

51.83 

52.22 

52.62 

53.01 

16 

17 

53.40 

53.79 

54.19 

54.58 

54.97 

55.37 

55.76 

56.15 

17 

18 

56.54 

56.94 

57.33 

57.72 

58.11 

58.51 

58.90 

59.29 

18 

19 

59.69 

60.08 

60.47 

;    60.86 

61.26 

61.65 

62.04 

62.43 

19 

20 

62.83 

63.22 

63.61 

64.01 

64.40 

64.79 

65.18 

65.58 

20 

21 

65.97 

66.36 

66.75 

67.15 

67.54 

67.93 

68.32 

68.72 

21 

22 

69.11 

69.50 

69.90 

70.29 

70.68 

71.07 

71.47 

71.86 

22 

23 

72.25 

72.64 

73.04 

73.43 

73.82 

74.22 

74.61 

75.00 

23 

24 

75.39 

75.79 

76.18 

76.57 

76.96 

77.36 

77.75 

78.14 

24 

25 

78.54 

78.93 

79.32 

79.71 

80.10 

80.50 

80.89 

81.28 

25 

26 

81.68 

82.07 

82.46 

8285 

83.25 

83.64 

84.03 

84.43 

26 

27 

84.82 

85.21 

85.60 

86.00 

86.39 

86.78 

86.17 

87.57 

27 

28 

87.% 

88.35 

88.75 

89.14 

89.53 

89.92 

90.32 

90.71 

28 

29 

91.10 

91.49 

91.89 

92.28 

92.67 

93.06 

93.46 

93.85 

29 

30 

94.24 

94.64 

95.03 

95.42 

95.81 

%.21 

96.60 

96.99 

30 

31 

97.39 

97.78 

98.17 

98.56 

98.% 

99.35 

99.74 

100.1 

31 

32 

100.5 

100.9 

101.3 

101.7 

102.1 

102.5 

102.9 

103.3 

32 

33 

103.7 

104.1 

104.5 

104.9 

105.2 

105.6 

106.0 

106.4 

33 

34 

106.8 

107.2 

107.6 

108.0 

108.4 

108.8 

109.2 

109.6 

34 

35 

110.0 

110.3 

110.7 

111.1 

111.5 

111.9 

112.3 

112.7 

35 

36 

113.1 

113.5 

113.9 

114.3 

114.7 

115.1 

115.5 

115.8 

36 

37 

116.2 

116.6 

117.0 

117.4 

117.8 

118.2 

118.6 

119.0 

37 

38 

119.4 

119.8 

120.2 

120.6 

121.0 

121.3 

121.7 

122.1 

38 

39 

122.5 

122.9 

123.3 

123.7 

124.1 

124.5 

124.9 

125.3 

39 

40 

125.7 

126.1 

126.4 

126.8 

127.2 

127.6 

128.0 

128.4 

40 

41 

128.8 

129.2 

129.6 

130.0 

130.4 

130.8 

131.2 

131.6 

41 

42 

131.9 

132.3 

132.7 

133.1 

133.5 

133.9 

134.3 

134.7 

42 

43 

135.1 

135.5 

135.9 

136.3 

136.7 

137.1 

137.4 

137.8 

43 

44 

138.2 

138.6 

139.0 

139.4 

139.8 

140.2 

140.6 

141.0 

44 

45 

141.4 

141.8 

142.2 

142.6 

142.9 

143.3 

143.7 

144.1 

45 

46 

144.5 

144.9 

145.3 

145.7 

146.1 

146.5 

146.9 

147.3 

46 

47 

147.7 

148.0 

148.4 

148.8 

149.2 

149.6 

150.0 

150.4 

47 

48 

150.8 

151.2 

151.6 

152.0 

152.4 

152.8 

153.2 

153.5 

48 

49 

153.9 

154.3 

154.7 

155.1 

155.5 

155.9 

156.3 

156.7 

49 

50 

157.1 

157.5 

157.9 

158.3 

158.7 

159.0 

159.4 

159.8 

50 

D=Diameter. 
A=Area. 
C=Circumference. 
S=Contents  of  Sphere. 
B=Contents  of  Cylinder. 


D=  3. 14159  or  V  A  -*-  -7854  or  C  X. 31831. 
A=D2X.7854  or  (C  -f-  3. 5446) *. 
C=D  X  3.14159  or  3.5446  V  A. 
S=D8X.5236. 
B=AX  length.     (A  being- the  area  of  one  end.) 


340 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


TABLE  OF  COMPRESSOR  CAPACITY  IN  CUBIC 
INCHES. 

FROM    1    TO    36   INCHES   DIAMETER    OF    CYLINDER,    AND    FROM    1  TO  24 
INCHES    STROKE. 

The  tabular  number  multiplied  by  strokes  per  minute  and  divided 
by  1,728  gives  cubic  feet  per  minute  theoretical  capacity  of  the  cylinder. 


Cylinder  diam. 
in  inches. 

LENGTH    OF    STROKE    IN    INCHES. 

Cylinder  diam. 
in  inches. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

C.  Ins. 

C.  Ins. 

C.  Ins. 

C.  Ins. 

C.  Ins. 

C.  Ins. 

C.  Ins. 

C.  Ins. 

C.  Ins. 

C.  Ins. 

1 

.785 

1.571 

2.356 

3.141 

3.927 

4.712 

5.498 

6.;283 

7.068 

7.854 

1 

1* 

1.767 

3.534 

5.301 

7.068 

8.83510.602 

12.370 

14.137 

15.90517.672 

li 

2 

3.141 

6.283 

9.425 

12.566 

15.70518.84921.991 

25.132 

28.27431.416 

2 

21 

4.908 

9.817 

14.726 

19.634 

24.54329.452 

34.360 

39.269 

44.17849.087 

2i 

3 

7.068 

14.137 

21.206 

28.274 

35.34342.41149.480 

56.549 

63.61770.686 

3 

4 

12.566 

25.132 

37.698 

50.265 

62.830 

75.39687.962 

100.53 

113.09125.66 

4 

5 

19.635 

39.270 

58.905 

78.540 

98.175117.81 

137.44 

157.08 

176.  71196.  35 

5 

6 

28.274 

56.548 

84.822 

113.09 

141.37169.64 

197.92 

226.19 

254.46282.74 

6 

7 

38.484 

76.968 

115.45 

153.93 

192.42 

230.90 

269.39 

307.87 

346.35384.84 

7 

8 

50.265 

100.53 

150.79 

201.06 

251.32 

301.59351.85 

402.12 

452.38!502.65 

8 

9 

63.617 

127.23 

190.85 

254.47 

318.08 

381.70445.32 

508.93 

572.55636.17 

9 

10 

78.540 

157.08 

235.62 

314.16 

392.70 

471.24549.78 

628.32 

706.86785.40 

10 

11 

95.033 

190.06 

285.09 

380.13 

475.16 

570.19665.23 

760.26 

855.29950.33 

11 

12 

113.09 

226.18 

339.27452.36 

565.45 

678.  541791.  63 

904.72 

1007.81120.9 

12 

13 

132.73 

265.46 

398.19 

530.92 

663.65 

796.38l929.ll 

1061.8 

1194.51327.2 

13 

14 

153.93307.86 

461.79 

615.72 

769.65 

923.581077.5 

1231.4 

1385.31539.3 

14 

15 

176.  71  1353.  42 

530.13 

706.84 

883.55 

1060.21236.9 

1413.6 

1590.3 

1767.1 

15 

16 

201.06 

402.12 

603.18 

804.24 

1005.3 

1206.31407.4 

1608.4 

1809.5 

2010.6     16 

17 

226.98 

453.96 

680.94 

907.92 

1134.9 

1361.8|1588.8 

1815.8 

2042.8 

2269.8     17 

18 

254.46 

508.92 

763.38 

1017.8 

1272.3 

1526.71781.2 

2035.62290.1 

2544.6 

18 

19 

283.52 

567.04 

850.56 

1134.0 

1417.6 

1701.11984.6 

2268.  12551.  6 

2835.2 

19 

20 

314.16628.32 

942.48 

1256.6 

1570.8 

1884.92199.1 

2513.22827.4 

3141.6 

20 

22 

380.13760.26 

1140.4 

1520.5 

1900.6 

2280.82660.9 

3041.0i3421.1 

3801.3 

22 

24 

452.39 

904.  78 

1357.1 

1809.5 

2261.9 

2714.33166.7 

3619.14071.5 

4523.9 

24 

26 

530.93 

1061.8 

1592.7 

2123.7 

2654.6 

3185.53716.5 

4247.44778.3 

5309.3 

26 

28 

615.75 

1231.5 

1847.2 

2463. 

3078.7 

3694.5 

4310.2 

4926. 

5541.7 

6157.5 

28 

30 

706.861413.7 

2120.5 

2827.4 

3534.3 

4241.14948. 

5654.86361.7 

7068.6 

30 

32    804.241608.4 

2412.7 

3216.9 

4021.2 

4825.45629.6 

6433.97238.18042.4 

32 

34   1907.921815.8 

2723.7 

3631.64539.6 

5447.56355.4 

7263.38171.29079.2 

34 

36 

1017.8 

2034.1 

3051.2 

4068.3 

5085.4 

6102.47119.5 

8136.69153.7 

1017.0 

36 

MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


341 


TABLE   OF   COMPRESSOR    CAPACITY   IN    CUBIC 
INCHES. 

FROM    1    TO   36  INCHES   DIAMETER   OF    CYLINDER,    AND   FROM    1  TO  24 
INCHES     STROKE. 

The  tabular  number  multiplied  by  strokes  per  minute  and  divided 
by  1,728  g-ives  cubic  feet  per  minute  theoretical  capacity  of  the  cylinder. 


Cylinder  diam. 
in  inches. 

LENGTH   OF   STROKE   IN    INCHES. 

Cylinder  diam. 
in  inches. 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

C.  Ins. 

C.  Ins. 

C.  Ins. 

C.  Ins. 

C.  Ins. 

C.  Ins. 

C.  Ins. 

C.  Ins. 

C.  Ins. 

C.  Ins. 

1 

8.639 

9.42510.110 

10.995 

11.781 

12.566 

14.137 

15.708 

17.279 

18.849 

1 

tt 

9.43921.20622.973 

24.740 

26.507 

28.274 

31.809 

35.34338.877 

42.411 

li 

2 

34.557  37.699  40.841:43.982 

47.124 

50.265 

56.549 

62.83269.113 

75.399 

2 

2i  '53.  995  58.  904  63.  813  68.  721 

73.63078.539 

88.356 

98.174 

107.99117.81 

2i 

3 

77.754|84.82391.892 

98.  960 

106.03 

113.09 

127.23 

141.37 

155.51 

169.64 

3 

4 

138.22150.79163.36 

175.92 

188.49 

201.05 

226.19 

251.32 

276.55 

301.58 

4 

5    215.98235.62255.25 

274.89 

294.52 

314.16353.43 

392.70431.97471.24 

5 

6    311.01'339.29367.56395.83 

424.11 

452.38J508.93 

565.  48^  622.  03  678.  57 

6 

7  |423.  32  461.  81  500.  29  538.  77 

577.26 

615.  74 

692.71 

769.68846.65923.61 

7 

8    552.91 

603.18653.44703.71 

753.97 

804.24 

904.77 

1005.31105.81206.3 

Q 

9 

699.78 

763.40 

827.02 

890.63 

954.25 

1017.8 

1145.1 

1272.31399.5 

1526.8       9 

10  !  863.  94  942.  48 

1021.0 

1099.5 

1178.1 

1256.6 

1413.7  1570.8:1727.8  1884.9 

10 

11    1045.31140.31235.4 

1330.41425.4 

1520.5 

1710.5!l900.6i2090.7  2280.7 

11 

12    1233.9|1357.1 

1470.2 

1583.31696.4 

1789.52035.7 

2261.9 

2488.12714.3 

12 

13 

1459.911592.7 

1725.5 

1858.2 

1980.9 

2123.7 

2389.1 

2654.6 

2920.1 

3185,5 

13 

14    1693.2|l847.2;2001.1 

2155.1 

2309.0 

2463.0 

2770.8 

3078.7 

3386.6 

3694.5 

14 

15    1943.8:2120.5,2297.2 

2474.0 

2650.72827.4 

3180.8 

3534.3 

3887.74241.1 

15 

16    2211.612412.7 
17    2496.8|2723.7 
18  J2799.03053.6 

2613.8 
2650.7 
3308.0 

2814.8 
3177.7 
3562.5 

3015.9 
3404.7 
3817.0 

3216.9 
3631.6 
4071.5 

3619.1 
4085.6 
4580.4 

4021.2 
4539.6 
5089.3 

4423.34825.4 
4993.55447.5 
5598.36107.2 

16 
17 

18 

19 

3118.7 

13402.3 

3685.8 

3969.4 

4252.9]4536.4 

5103.5 

5670.5 

6237.66804.7 

19 

20    3455.7 

3769.9i4084.0 

4398.2 

4712.45026.5 

5654.86283.2 

6911.5 

7539.8 

20 

22  14181.4J4561.5|4941.75321.8 

5701.96082.1  6842.37602.6 

8362.99123.1 

22 

24    4976.25428.65881.0 

6333.4 

6785.87238.2 

8143.09047.8 

9952.5 

10857 

24 

26    5840.2i6371.1 

6902.0 

7433.0 

7963.98494.8 

9556.7 

10618 

11680 

12742 

26 

28    6773.27389.0 

8004.7 

8620.59236.39852.0 

11083 

12315 

13546 

14778 

28 

30  i  7775.  4  8482.  3 

9189.1 

98%.  010602 

11309 

12723 

14137 

15550 

16964 

30 

32    8846.6!9650.9 

10455 

11259 

12063 

12868 

14576 

16085 

17693 

19301       32 

34    9987.1 

10895 

11802 

12710 

13618 

14526 

13642 

18158 

19974 

21790      34 

36    11187 

12214 

13232 

14240 

15258 

16275 

18311 

20347  22383 

24418      36 

342 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


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MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


343 


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344 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 
TABLE    OF    GAUGES. 


Gauge  Number. 

English  Imperial  Legal 
Standard. 

Birmingham  or  Stubbs, 
or  "English  Standard." 

Birmingham,  for  Sheets 
not  Iron  or  Steel. 

Birmingham,  for  Iron 
Sheets. 

Lancashire,  one  of 
Holtzapffels. 

0) 

"O 

« 

0 

SD 

I 

M 

jh 

"So 

A 

•o 
O 

Needle  Wire. 

Music  Wire  in  England. 

Whitworth's  English 
Standard. 

American  New  Legal 
Standard. 

Brown  &  Sharpe  Ameri- 
can Standard. 

0000000 

500 

500 

500 

000000 

464 

468+ 

468+ 



00000 

432 

437+ 

437+ 

0000 

400 

454 

406+ 

406 

460 

000 

372 

425 

.375 

.375 

4094 

00 

348 

380 

343+ 

343+ 

T.f.A 

o 

3^4 

340 

326 

312+ 

794  i 

1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 

.300 
.276 
.252 
.232 
.212 
.192 
.176 
160 

300 
.284 
.259 
238 
.220 
.203 
.180 
165 

.004 
005 
.008 
.010 
.012 
.013 
.015 
016 

312+ 
281+ 
.250 
.234+ 
.218+ 
.203+ 
.187+ 
.171+ 

227 
219 
.209 
.204 
.201 
.198 
.195 
192 

.300 
.274 
.250 
.229 
.209 
.191 
.174 
.159 

.045 

.042 
.035 
.032 
.028 
.025 
.022 
020 

.018 
.019 
.020 

.001 
.002 
.003 
.004 
.005 
.006 
.007 
008 

.281+ 
.265— 
.250 

.234+ 
.218+ 
.203+ 
.187+ 

.171+ 

.289- 
.257- 
.229- 
.2044 
.18l4 
.1624 
,144- 
1^8 

9 

144 

148 

019 

.156+ 

191 

146 

.018 

.021 

.009 

.156+ 

114 

10 

134 

024 

140+ 

190 

133 

016 

022 

010 

140+ 

101 

11 
12 

.116 
104 

.120 
109 

.029 
034 

.125 

.112+ 

.189 

18S 

.117 
100 

.014 
.013 

.023 
.025 

.011 
01? 

.125 

.109+ 

.0904 
080-} 

13 

092 

095 

036 

.100 

180 

.090 

.012 

.026+ 

.093+ 

071-} 

14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 

.080 
.072 
.064 
.056 
.048 
.040 
036 
032 

.083 
.072 
.065 
.058 
.049 
.042 
.035 
032 

.041 
.047 
.051 
.057 
.061 
.064 
.067 
072 

.087+ 
.075 
.062+ 
.056+ 
.050 
.043+ 
.037+ 
.034+ 

.177 
.175 
.174 
.169 
.167 
.164 
.160 

.079 
.069 
.062+ 
.053 
.047 
.041 
.036 
031+ 

.083 
.072 
.065 
.058 
.049 
.040 
.035 
.031+ 

.010 
.009 
.008 
.007 
.005 
.004 
.003 
.002 

.028 
.030 
.032 
.033+ 
.035 
.038 
.042 

.014 
.015 
.016 
.017 
.018 
.019 
.020 

.078+ 
.080+ 
.062+ 
.056-}- 
.050 
.043+ 
.037+ 
.034+ 

.064-| 

.057- 
.050- 
.045- 
.040- 
.035- 
.031- 
028-1 

22 

028 

028 

074 

031+ 

152 

.028 

029+ 

O09 

.031+ 

025-} 

23 

024 

025 

077 

.028+ 

150 

027 

.028+ 

022-1 

24 

022 

022 

082 

.025 

148 

.025 

0^4 

.025 

020-} 

25 

0^0 

095 

023+ 

146 

023 

0214- 

017-) 

26 

018 

018 

103 

0214- 

143 

020+ 

026 

018+ 

015 

27 

016+ 

016 

113 

020-j- 

141 

018+ 

017+ 

014 

28 
29 

.014+ 
013+ 

.014 
013 

.120 
114 

.018+ 
017+ 

.138 
134 

016— 

015+ 



.028 

.015+ 
014-}- 

.012- 
011 

30 
31 

.012+ 
011+ 

.012 
010 

.126 
133 

.015+ 
.0144- 

.125 
118 



.013— 

012+ 

.... 

.030 

.012+ 
010+ 

.010- 

008-} 

32 

010+ 

009 

143 

.012+ 

115 

011+ 

.032 

010+ 

007-} 

33 

010 

008 

145 

111 

0104- 

.009+ 

007-} 

34 

009+ 

007 

.148 

109 

.009+ 

0^4 

.008+ 

006-} 

35 

0084- 

005 

.158 

107 

.009 

.007+ 

005-} 

36 
37 

.007+ 
006+ 

.004 

.169 



.105 
102 

.007+ 
006+ 



.036 

.007+ 
006+ 

.005 
004-} 

38 

006 

100 

005+ 

038 

006+ 

003-} 

39 

005+ 

098 

005 

002-} 

40 

004+ 

096 

.004+ 

040 

0034 

41 

004+ 

095 

42 

004 

091 

MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  345 

MECHANICAL     AND     ELECTRICAL     UNIT     EQUIVALENTS. 


Units. 


Equivalent  Value  in  Other 

Units. 


Units. 


Equivalent  Value  in  Other 
Units. 


1  heat 
unit  = 


1,048  watt  seconds. 
772  ft.-lb. 

0.252  caloric  (kg-.d.). 
108  kilogrammeters. 
0.000291  kilowatt  hour. 
0.000388  H.  P.  hour. 
0.0000667    Ib.  coal  oxi- 
dized. 

0.00087  Ib.  water  evapo- 
rated at  212°  F. 


1  watt  = 


1    heat 

unit  per  0.021  watt  per  square  inch, 
square 0.0174  kilowatt, 
foot  per  |0. 0232  H.  P. 
min.   = 


1.36  joules. 
1  font        0.1383  kilogrammeter. 

„,,_  10. 000000377  kilowatt  hour". 
"0.000291  heat  unit. 
0.0000005  H.  P.  hour. 


1     pound  0.33  kilowatt  hour, 

water  0.44  H.  P.  hour, 

evapo-         1,148  heat  units, 
rated     124,200  kilogrammeters. 
at   212°  1,219,000  joules. 
F.       =.    887,800  ft. -Ibs. 


1  joule  per  second. 
0.00134  H.  P. 
0.001  kilowatt. 
3.44  heat  units  per  hour. 
0.73  ft.-lb.  per  second. 
0.003  Ib.  of  water  evapo- 
rated per  hour. 
44.24  ft. -Ibs.  per  minute. 


1  kilo- 
watt = 


1,000  watts. 

1.34  H.  P. 
2,656,400  ft. -Ibs.  per  hour. 
4,424  ft. -Ibs.  per.  min. 
73.73    ft. -Ibs.     per 

second. 
3,440   heat   units   per 

hour. 
573   heat    units   per 

minute. 
9.55  heat  units  per 

second. 

3  Ibs.  water  evap- 
orated per  hour 
at  212°  F. 


746  watts. 

0.746  kilowatts. 
33,000  ft. -Ibs.  per  minute.    I 

550  ft. -Ibs.  per  second. 
2,580  heat  units  per  hour.! 
43      heat       units       per 

minute. 
0.71     heat     unit     per! 

second. 

2.25  Ibs.  water  evapo- 
rated per  hour  atj 
212°  F. 


1  kilo- 
w  a  t  t 


1,000  watt  hours. 

1.34  H.  P.  hours. 
2,656,400  ft. -Ibs. 
13,600,000  joules. 

3,440  heat  units. 
366,848  kilogrammeters. 
3  Ibs.  water  evap- 
orated at  212°  F. 
22.9  Ibs.    water 
raised   from  62° 
to  212°  F. 


0.746  kilowatt  hour. 
1,980,000  ft. -Ibs. 

2,580  heat  units. 

1  H.  P.     ,    273,740  kilogr ammeters, 
hour  =  2.25  Ibs.  water  evap- 

orated at  212°  F. 
17.2  Ibs.  waterraised 
from  62°  to  212°  F. 


1  kilo- 
gr r  a  m- 


1  joule  = 


7.23  ft. -Ibs. 
0.00000366  H.  P.  hour. 
0.00000272  kilowatt  hour. 
0.0092  heat  unit. 


1  watt  second. 
0.00000278  kilowatt  hour. 
0.102  kilogrammeter. 
0.00094  heat  unit. 
0.73  ft -Ib. 


346 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


TABLE    OF    CONVERSION    FACTORS. 


ENGLISH   TO    METRICAL. 


Pounds  per  lineal  foot 

Pounds  per  lineal  yard. .  .  . 

Tons  per  lineal  foot 

Tons  per  lineal  yard 

Pounds  per  mile 

Pounds  per  square  inch.  . . 

Tons  per  square  inch 

Pounds  per  square  foot.  .  . . 

Tons  per  square  foot 

Tons  per  square  yard 

Pounds  per  cubic  yard 

Pounds  per  cubic  foot 

Tons  per  cubic  yard 

Grains  per  gallon 

Pounds  per  gallon 

Gallons  per  square  foot.  . .  . 

Foot-pounds 

Foot-tons 

Horse  power 

Pounds  per  H.  P , 

Square  feet  per  H.  P 

Cubic  feet  per  H.  P 

Heat  units 

Heat  units  per  square  foot. 


X 

1.488 

X 

0.496 

X 

3333.323 

X 

1111.11 

X 

0.2818 

X 

0.0703 

X 

1.575 

X 

4.883 

X 

10.936 

X 

1.215 

X 

0.5933 

X 

16.020 

X 

1.329 

X 

0.01426 

X 

0.09983 

X 

48.905 

X 

0.1382 

X 

0.3333 

X 

1.0139 

X 

0.477 

X 

0.0196 

X 

0.0279 

X 

0.252 

X 

2.713 

kilos,  per  lineal  metre, 
kilos,  per  lineal  metre, 
kilos,  per  lineal  metre, 
kilos,  per  lineal  metre, 
kilos,  per  lineal  metre, 
kilos,  per  square  centimetre, 
kilos,  per  squaremillimetre. 
kilos,  per  square  metre, 
tonnes  per  square  metre, 
tonnes  per  square  metre, 
kilos,  per  cubic  metre, 
kilos,  per  cubic  metre, 
tonnes  per  cubic  metre, 
grammes  per  litre, 
kilos,  per  litre, 
litres  per  square  metre, 
kilogrammetres. 
tonne-metres, 
force  de  cheval. 
kilos,  per  cheval. 
square  metre  per  cheval. 
cubic  metre  per  cheval. 
calories, 
calories  per  square  metre. 


METRICAL    TO    ENGLISH. 


Kilos,  per  lineal  metre 

Kilos,  per  lineal  metre 

Kilos,  per  lineal  metre 

Kilos,  per  lineal  metre 

Kilos,  per  lineal  metre 

Kilos,  per  square  centimetre  .  . 
Kilos,  per  square  millimetre  .  . 

Kilos,  per  square  metre 

Tonnes  per  square  metre 

Tonnes  per  square  metre 

Kilos,  per  cubic  metre 

Kilos,  per  cubic  metre 

Tonnes  per  cubic  metre 

Grammes  per  litre 

Kilos,  per  litre 

Litres  per  square  metre 

Kilogrammetres 

Tonne-metres    

Force  de  cheval 

Kilos,  per  cheval 

Square  metre  per  cheval 

Cubic  metre  per  cheval 

Calories 

Calories  per  square  metre 


X     0.672    =  pounds  per  lineal  foot. 

X     2.016    =  pounds  per  lineal  yard. 

X     0.0003  =  tons  per  lineal  foot. 

X     0.0009  =  tons  per  lineal  yard. 

X     3.548    =  pounds  per  mile. 

X  14.223    =  pounds  par   square    inch. 

X     0.635    =  tons  per  square  inch. 

X     0.2048  —  pounds  per  square  foot. 

X     0.0914  =  tons  per  square  foot. 

X     0.823    =  tons  per  square  yard. 

X     1.686    =  pounds  per  cubic  yard. 

X     0.0624  =  pounds  per  cubic  foot. 

X     0.752    =  tons  per  cubic  yard. 

X  73.09      =  grains  per  gallon  (Imperial). 

X  10.438    =  pounds  per  gallon  (Imperial). 

X     0.0204  =  gallons  per  square  foot. 

X     7.233    =  foot-pounds. 

X     3.000    =  foot-tons. 

X     0.9863  =  horse  power. 

X     2.235    =  pounds  per  H.  P. 

X  10.913    =  square  feet  per  H.  P. 

X  35.806    =  cubic  feet  per  H.  P. 

X     3.968    =  heat  units. 

X    0.369    =  heat  units  per  square  foot. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


347 


TABLE    SHOWING    THE    COMPARATIVE    PROPERTIES    OF 
THE  THREE  PRINCIPAL  GASES  USED  FOR  REFRIG- 
ERATION, AND  THE  ORIGINAL  AUTHORITIES. 

Heat  units  expressed  in  British  Thermal  Units  per  pound  of  the  respective  gras. 


Temper- 
ature of 
ebullition 

Absolute 
pressure 
in  Ibs.  per 

Total 
heat  reck- 
oned from 

Heat  of 
liq'd  reck- 
oned from 

Latent 
heat  of 
evapora- 

Heat 
equival't 
ofextern'l 

Internal 
latent 
heat 

Increase 
of  volume 
during- 

Density 
of  vapor 
or  weight 

in  deg.  F. 

sq.  in. 

32°  Fah. 

32°  Fah. 

tion. 

work. 

evapor'n. 

of  one 

t 

Pn-144 

x. 

9 

r 

APu 

P 

• 

cubic  ft. 

Dejr.Fah. 

Lbs. 

B.  T.  U. 

B.  T.  U. 

B.  T.  U. 

B.  T.  U. 

B,  T.  U. 

Cu.  Ft. 

Lbs. 

FOR  SATURATED  SULPHUR  DIOXIDE  GAS. 

Ledoux. 

—22 

5.56 

157.43 

—19.56 

176.99 

13.59 

163.39 

13.17 

.076 

—13 

7.23 

158.64 

—16.30 

174.95 

13.83 

161.12 

10.27 

.097 

—  4 

9.27 

159.84 

—13.05 

172.89 

14.05 

158.84 

8.12 

.123 

5 

11.76 

161.03 

—  9.79 

170.82 

14.26 

156.56 

6.50 

.153 

14 

14.74 

162.20 

—  6.53 

168.73 

14.46 

154.27 

5.25 

.190 

23 

18.31 

163.36 

—  3.27 

166.63 

14.66 

151.97 

4.29 

.232 

32 

22.53 

164.51 

0.00 

164.51 

14.84 

149.68 

3.54 

.282 

41 

27.48 

165.65 

3.27 

162.38 

15.01 

147.37 

2.93 

.340 

50 

33.25 

166.78 

6.55 

160.23 

15.17 

145.06 

2.45 

.407 

59 

39.93 

167.90 

9.83 

158.07 

15.32 

142.75 

2.07 

.483 

68 

47.61 

168.99 

13.11 

155.89 

15.46 

140.43 

1.75 

.570 

77 

56.39 

170.09 

16.39     153.70 

15.59 

138.11 

1.49 

.669 

86 

66.36 

171.17 

19.69    151.49 

15.71 

135.78 

1.27 

.780 

95 

77.64 

172.24 

22.98 

149.26 

15.82 

133.45 

1.09 

.906 

104 

90.31 

173.30 

26.28 

147.02 

15.91 

131.11 

.91 

1.046 

FOR  SATURATED  AMMONIA  GAS. 

Zeuner. 

—40 

10.22 

538.65    —60.82* 

599.47 

550.69 

48.77 

25.61 

.039 

—31 

13.23 

542.34  —54.54 

596.88 

547.33 

49.56 

20.10 

.050 

—22 

16.95 

545.96  —47.88 

593.87 

543.53 

50.32 

15.93 

.063 

—13 

21.51 

549.54   —40.84 

590.38 

539.32 

51.06 

12.74 

.078 

—  4 

27.04 

553.08   —33.43 

586.51 

534.72 

51.78 

10.28 

.097 

5 

33.67 

556.57   —25.64 

582.21 

529.74 

52.48 

8.37 

.119 

14 

41.58 

560.00   —17.47 

577.47 

524.32 

53.16 

6.86 

.145 

23 

50.91 

563.41   —  8.92 

572.33 

518.53 

53.81 

5.67 

.175 

32 

61.85 

566.75         0.00 

566.75 

512.30 

54.45 

4.73 

.210 

41 

74.55 

570.06         9.30 

560.76 

505.69 

55.06 

3.96 

.251 

50 

89.21 

573.31        18.98 

554.33 

498.67 

55.65 

3.35 

.296 

59 

105.99 

576.52       29.03 

547.49 

491.26 

56.23 

2.85 

.348 

68 

125.08 

579.68       39.46 

540.22 

483.44 

56.78 

2.44 

.406 

77 

146.64 

582.78       50.27 

532.51 

475.20 

57.31 

2.10 

.471 

86 

170.83 

585.84  i     61.45 

524.39 

466.58 

57.81 

1.82 

.543 

95 

197.83 

588.86       73.02 

515.84 

457.54 

58.30 

1.58 

.622 

104 

227.76 

591.83  i     84.95 

506.88 

448.11 

58.77 

1.39 

.709 

SATURATED  CARBONIC  ACID  GAS. 

Pf.  Schroter 

—22 

210 

98.35 

—37.80 

136.15 

16.20 

119.95 

.4138 

2.321 

—13 

249 

99.14 

-32.51 

131.65 

16.04 

115.61 

.3459 

2.759 

—  4 

292 

99.88 

-26.91 

126.79 

15.80 

110.99 

.2901 

3.265 

5 

342 

100.58 

—20.92 

121.50 

15.50 

106.00 

.2435 

3.853 

14 

396 

101.21 

—14.49 

115.70 

15.08 

100.62 

.2042 

4.535 

23 

457 

101.81 

—  7.56 

109.37 

14.58 

94.79 

.1711 

5.331 

32 

525 

102.35 

0.00 

102.35 

13.93 

88.42 

.1426 

6.265 

41 

599 

102.84 

8.32 

94.52 

13.14 

81.38 

.1177 

7.374 

50 

680 

103.24 

17.60 

85.64 

12.15 

73.49 

.0960 

8.708 

59 

768 

103.59 

28.22 

75.37 

10.91 

64.46 

.0763 

10.356 

68 

864 

103.84 

40.86 

62.98 

9.29 

53.69 

.0577 

12.480 

77 

968 

103.95 

57.06 

46.89 

7.06 

39.83 

.0391 

15.475 

86 

1080 

103.72 

84.44 

19.28 

2.95 

16.33 

.0147 

21.519 

348 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 
HEAT    OF  COMBUSTION    OF  FUELS. 


FUELS. 

Air  Chemically  Con- 
sumed per  Pound 
of  Fuel. 

Total  Heat  of 
Combustion  of 
One  Pound  of 
Fuel. 

Equivalent 
Evaporative 
Power  from  and 
at  212°  F. 
Water  per 
Pound  of  Fuel. 

Coal  of  average  composition. 
Coke. 

Pounds 

10.7 
10.81 
8.85 
11.85 
6.09 
4.57 
9.51 
7.52 
5.24 
4.26 
14.33 
17.93 

Cubic  Feet 
at  62°  F. 

140 

142 
116 
156 

80 
60 
125 
99 
69 
56 
188 
235 

Units. 
14,700 

13,548 
13,108 
17,040 
10,974 
7,951 
13,006 
12,279 
8,260 
8,144 
20,411 
27,531 

630 

Pounds. 

15.22 
14.02 
13.57 
17.64 
11.36 
8.20 
13.46 
12.71 
9.53 
8.43 
21.13 
28.50 

0.70 

T-/ign  iff* 

Asphalt  . 

Wood,  desiccated 

Wood,  20  per  cent  moisture. 
Wood  charcoal,  desiccated. 
Peat,  desiccated  

Peat,  30  per  cent  moisture. 
Straw  .    ... 

Petroleum                

Petroleum  oils  

Coal  gas  per  cubic   foot   at 
62°  F  

In  practice  it  is  found  that  from  eighteen  to  twenty-four  pounds  of 
air  is  required  for  the  combustion  of  each  pound  of  coal,  according-  as 
to  whether  forced  or  natural  draft  is  used. 


COMPARATIVE  EVAPORATIVE  VALUE  OF  FUELS. 

The  feed  water  being-  212°  Fahrenheit  when  it  enters  the  boiler,  the 
following-  results  were  obtained  from  the  consumption  of  one  pound  of 
the  under-mentioned  fuels.  The  first  eig-ht  give  the  average  of  many 
samples  tested  by  Messrs.  Delabfeche  and  Playfair : 


FUELS. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Pounds  of  Water 
Evaporated. 

Comparative 

Values. 

Welsh  coal       
Newcastle  coal  . 

1.315 
1.256 

9.051 
8.01  1 

1.000 
0  885 

Derby  and  York  coal 

1.292 

7.58  1 

0  837 

Lancashire  coal.             

1.273 

7.94     „ 

0  877 

Scotch  coal  

1  260 

7.70     By  trial. 

0  851 

British   average  

1.290 

8.13 

0.898 

Irish  anthracite  

1.590 

9.85  1 

1.088 

Patent   fuels 

1  167 

9  20  J 

1  016 

French  coal  (average) 

1  310 

8  001 

0  884 

Lignites  (average)  

1.198 

6.66  ! 

0.736 

Well  dried  peat           .    . 

1.300 

4  52 

0  500 

Coke  (average) 

0  750 

9  00     Approx. 

0  995 

Oak  

0.930 

4.52 

0  500 

Pine.. 

0.660 

2.5    1 

0.276 

MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 
AVERAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  FUELS. 


349 


FUELS. 

Carbon. 

Hydrogen. 

Sulphur. 

Nitrogen. 

Oxygen. 

Ash. 

British  coal.  .  . 
Coke   

Per  Cent. 
80 
93^ 

69 
79 

50 

79 
59 
36 

85 

68.12 
71.10 

Per  Cent- 
5 

5 
9 
6 

2 
6 
5 
13 

6.68 
6.06 

Per  Cent. 

1.25 

^ 

2.47 
1.0 

Per  Cent. 
1| 

2 

1 

1 
1.25 
0.5 

2.27 
1.65 

Per  Cent. 
8 

\ 
0 
9 
41 

1 

30 
38 

2 

5.83 
12.76 

Per  Cent. 
4 

5.5 

6 

3 

2 

8 
4 
4.5 

168 
7.65 

Licrnite            .  . 

Asphalt         .  .  . 

Wood,  dry  

Wood  charcoal 
Peat,  dry  
Straw  

Petroleum  
Pennsylvania 
Cannel  

Indiana  Can'l. 

Pennsylvania 
Semi-Bit'min's 
Semi-  Anth  'cite 
(Wilkesbarre,  Pa.) 
True  Anth  'cite 
(Tamaqua,  Pa.) 

Fixed  Carbon. 

Sulphur. 

Volatile  Matter. 

Earthy 
Mat  er. 

73.11 

88.90 

92.07 

.85 

15.27 
7.68 

5.03 

10.77 
3.49 

2.90 

RATE  OF  COMBUSTION  OF  FUEL. 

The  rate  of  combustion  of  coal  in  steam  boilers  per  square  foot  of 
fire  grate  per  hour  may  be  taken  on  the  following-  basis  : 

Portable  engine  boilers 9  to  16  pounds. 

Vertical   boilers 6  "  14 

Cornish  boilers 12  "  15 

Lancashire  boilers   14  "  29  " 

Marine  boilers,  natural  draft 12  "  24  " 

Marine  boilers,  forced  draft 20  "  34  " 

Torpedo  boat  boilers 40  "  70  " 

Locomotive   boilers..                                                               .  40  "  100  '« 


WEIGHT  AND  COMPARATIVE  FUEL  VALUE  OF  WOOD. 

One  cord  air-dried  hickory  or  hard  maple  weighs  about  4,500  pounds,  and  is  equal  to 
about  2,000  pounds  coal. 

One  cord  air-dried  white  oak  weighs  about  3,850  pounds,  and  is  equal  to  about  1,715 
pounds  coal. 

One  cord  air-dried  beach,  red  oak  or  black  oak  weighs  about  3,250  pounds,  and  is  equal 
to  about  1,450  pounds  coal. 

One  cord  air-dried  poplar  (whitewood),  chestnut  or  elm,  weighs  about  2,350  pounds,  and 
is  equal  to  about  1,050  pounds  coal. 

One  cord  air-dried  average  pine  weighs  about  2,000  pounds,  and  is  equal  to  about  925 
pounds  coal. 

From  the  above  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  two  and  one-fourth  pounds  of  dry  wood  is  equal 
to  one  pound  average  quality  of  soft  coal,  and  that  the  full  value  of  the  same  weight oi  differ- 
ent woods  is  very  nearly  the  same — that  is,  a  pound  of  hickory  is  worth  no  more  for  fuel 
than  a  pound  of  pine,  assuming  both  to  be  dry.  It  is  important  that  the  wood  be  dry,  as 
each  10  per  cent  of  water  or  moisture  in  wood  will  detract  about  12  per  cent  from  its  value  as 
fuel. 


350 


MACHINERY   FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


EQUIVALENT  MEASURES  OF  VOLUME. 

1  imperial  gallon  =  277.274  cubic  inches. 

1  imperial  gallon  =  0.16045  cubic  foot. 

1  imperial  gallon  —  10  pounds. 

1  United  States  gallon  =  231.0  cubic  inches  =  8.34  pounds,  nearly. 

1  United  States  gallon  =  0.8339  imperial  gallon. 

1  United  States  gallon  =  3.8  liters  of  water. 

A  cubic  foot  of  sea  water  =  64.00  pounds. 

A  cubic  inch  of  sea  water  =  0.037037  pound. 

A  cubic  foot  of  water  =  62.32  pounds. 

A  cubic  inch  of  water  =  0.03616  pound. 

A  cylindrical  foot  of  water  =-48. 96  pounds. 

A  cylindrical  inch  of  water  =  0.0284  pound. 

A  column  of  water  12  inches  long,  1  inch  square  =0.434  pound. 

A  column  of  water  12  inches  long,  1  inch  diameter  =  0.340  pound. 

The  capacity  of  a  12-inch  cube  =  6.232  gallons. 

The  capacity  of  a  1-inch  square  1  foot  long=  0.0434  gallon. 

The  capacity  of  a  1-foot  diameter  1  foot  long  =  4.896  gallons. 

The  capacity  of  a  cylinder  in  gallons  1  yard  long  =  0.1  diameter  squared. 

The  capacity  of  a  1-inch  diameter  1  foot  long=  0.034  gallon. 

The  capacity  of  a  cylindrical  inch  =  0.002832  gallon. 

The  capacity  of  a  cubic  inch  =  0.003606  gallon. 

The  capacity  of  a  sphere  12  inches  diameter  —  3.263  gallons. 

The  capacity  of  a  sphere  1  inch  diameter  =  0.00188  gallon. 

1  imperial  gallon  =  1.2  United  States  gallon. 

1  imperial  gallon  =  4.543  liters  of  water. 

1  cubic  foot  of  water  =  6.232  imperial  gallons. 

1  cubic  foot  of  water  =  7.476  United  States  gallons. 

I  cubic  foot  of  water  =  28.375  liters  of  water. 

1  liter  of  water  =  0.22  imperial  gallon. 

1  liter  of  water  =  0.264  United  States  gallon. 

1  liter  of  water  =  61.0  cubic  inches. 

1  liter  of  water  =  0.0353  cubic  foot. 


RELATIVE    WEIGHTS    OF    METALS. 


METALS. 

Bar 
Iron. 

Cast 
Iron. 

Steel. 

Brass 

Cop- 
per. 

Lead. 

Zinc. 

Bar  Iron  being  1  

1. 

0  93 

1.01 

1.09 

1.15 

1.48 

0.92 

Cast  Iron              1 

1  07 

1 

1  08 

1  17 

1  23 

1  56 

0  99 

Steel                       1    

0  99 

0  92 

1 

1  08 

1  13 

1  46 

0  91 

Brass                      1  .          .... 

0  92 

0  85 

0  93 

1 

1  05 

1  36 

0  84 

Coooer                    1  .  . 

0  87 

0  81 

0  88 

0  94 

1 

1  29 

0  80 

Lead                       1 

0  53 

0  63 

0  69 

0  74 

0  78 

I 

0  69 

Zinc                        1  

1.09 

1.01 

1.10 

1.18 

1.25 

1.61 

1. 

APPENDIX  II. 

REFERENCES  TO  LITERATURE  ON  REFRIGERATION  AND 
ALLIED  SUBJECTS. 


352  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


BOOKS,  PAMPHLETS  AND  TREATISES. 

COLD  AND  REFRIGERATION. 
Papers  on   Various  Processes,  with  Illustrations  and  Discussions. 

PROCEEDINGS    OF   THE    ENGINEERING   ASSOCIATION    OF   NEW    SOUTH 

WALES.— Volumes  I,  VIII  and  X. 
PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE  INSTITUTION  OF  CIVIL  ENGINEERS,  ENGLAND. — 

Volumes  37,  39,  49,  60,  68,  91,  93,  118. 
PROCEEDINGS   OF    THE    INSTITUTION     OF    MECHANICAL    ENGINEERS, 

ENGLAND. — Volumes  for  1886. 

HEAT  AND  ITS  APPLICATIONS. 

ANDERSON,  WM.— Conversion  of  Heat  into  Work.     Whittaker  &  Co.  and 

Bell  &  Sons,  London. 
Box,  THOMAS. — Spoil,  London. 

One  of  the  most  useful  hand  books  on  heat  ever  written,  full  of  prac- 
tical tables,  but  very  little  theory. 

CARNOT,  N.  L.  S. — Reflections  on  the  Motive  Power  of  Heat.     Trans- 
lated by  Thurston.     New  York,  1890. 
CLARK,  D.  K.— The  Mechanical  Engineer's  Pocket  Book.     New  York, 

1892. 

CLAUSIUS,  R. — Die  Mechanische  Warmetheorie.    Three  volumes.    Braun- 
schweig, 1891. 

English  translation,  with  references  to  the  criticisms  of  other  leading- 
authorities.  Perhaps  the  leading-  work  from  the  mathematical 
side  of  the  subject. 

EWING,    S.    A. — The  Steam  Engine  and  Other  Heat  Engines.     Cam- 
bridge, 1884. 
GRASHOF,  F. — Hydraulik  Nebst  Mechanische  Warmetheorie.     Leipzig, 

1875. 
LAIDNER,  DR. — Heat.     New   edition    rewritten    by    B.   Loewy,    Crosby 

Lockwood.     London. 
Has   a  number  of  chapters  on  the  expansion  of  gases,  vaporization, 

condensation,  etc. 
MAXWELL,  CLARK  J.— The  Theory  of  Heat.     London,  1891. 

A  scientific  text  book. 

MAYER,  J.  R.— Mechanical  Heat.     Stuttgart,  1847. 
MAYER.  J.   R. — Bemerkungen  Ueber  das  Mechanische   Equivalent  der 

Warme.     Heilbronn  und  Leipzig,  1851. 

PLANCK,  MAX.— Ueber  der  Zweiten  Hauptsatz  der  Mechanischen  War- 
metheorie.   Munchen,  1879. 


MACHINERY  FOR   REFRIGERATION.  353 

PEABODY,  C.  H. — Tables  on  Saturated  Steam  and  Other  Vapors.     New 

York,  1888. 
RANKINE,  PROF. — Manual  of  the  Steam  Engine.     Chas.  Griffin  &  Co., 

London. 
RUHLM ANN,  RICHARD.  — Hand-Book  on  Theory  of  Mechanical  Heat.   Two 

volumes.     Braunschweig-,  1876. 
STEWART,  BALFOUR. — Elementary  Treatise  on  Heat.     The  Clarendon 

Press,  Oxford. 

With  a  chapter  on  the  nature  of  heat  and  its  sources. 
THURSTON,  ROBERT  H. — Heat  as  a  Form  of  Energy.     Boston  and  New 

York,  1890. 
TYNDALL,  J. — Heat  Considered  as  a  Mode  of  Motion.     London,  1883. 

A  world  famed  book. 
WILLIAMS,  W.  MATTHIEU. — A    Simple    Treatise    on    Heat.     Chatto  & 

Windus,  London. 
A  small  book,  but  has  a  very  clear  chapter  on  dissociation. 

REFRIGERATING  MACHINERY  AND  THERMODYNAMICS. 
BEHREND,  GOTTLIEB.— Ice  and  Cold  Machinery.     Halle-a-Salle,  1888. 

CASE  Co. — A  Description  of  the  Physical  Process  of  Artificial  Refrig- 
eration.    Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

A  small  treatise  bound  up  as  Part  II  with  this  company's  business 
catalogue. 

EDDY,  HENRY  T.— Thermodynamics.     New  York,  1879. 

GIBBS,   WILLARD  J. — Studies   in  Thermodynamics ;  translated    by  W. 
Ostwald.     Leipzig,  1892. 

HOFF,  J.  H. — Chemische  Dynamik.     Amsterdam,  1884. 

LEASK,  A.  RITCHIE. — Refrigerating  Machinery  and  Its  Management. 
Tower  Publishing  Co.,  London,  1895. 

LEDOUX,  M.— Ice  Making  Machinery.    With  additions  by  Messrs.  Den- 
ton,  Jacobus  and  Riesenberger.     New  York,  1892. 

The  theory  of  machines  using  sulphurous  dioxide  and  carbonic  anhy- 
dride, as  well  as  those  using  ammonia. 

LIGHTFOOT,    T.    B. — Refrigerating  Machinery  on  the    Linde   System. 

London. 
A  paper  read  before  the  London  Association  of  Foreman  Engineers. 

LORENZ,  HANS. — New  Ice  Machinery.     Miinchen  and  Leipzig,  1899. 
PARKER,  J. — Thermodynamics  Treated  with  Elementary  Mathematics. 

London,  1894. 

PUPIN,  M.  T. — Thermodynamics.     New  York,  1894. 
REDWOOD,  I. — Theoretical  and  Practical  Ammonia  Refrigeration.  New 

York,  1895. 
RICHMOND,    GEORGE. — Notes   on   the    Refrigerating    Process    and    Its 

Place  in  Thermodynamics.     New  York,  1892. 

(23) 


354  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION, 

RONTGEN,  ROBERT. — Principles  of    Thermodynamics.     Translated    by 

DuBois.     New  York,  1899. 

SCHROTER,  M. — Vergleichende  Versuche  und  Kaltemaschinen.  Munich. 
An  account,  illustrated  by  numerous  plates,  of  the  trials  carried  out  at 
Munich,  Bavaria,  between  Pictet  and  Linde  machines. 

SCHWARZ,  ALOIS. — Ice  and  Cold  Machine.     Miinchen  and  Leipzig-,  1888. 
SIKBEL,  J.  E. — Compend  of  Mechanical  Refrigeration.     Third  edition. 

H.  S.  Rich  &  Co.     Chicag-o,  1900. 
The  most   popular   book    yet    written.     The  refrigerating  engineer's 

vade  me  cum. 
SKINKLE,  E.  T. — Practical  Ice  Making- and  Refrig-erating.     H.  S.  Rich 

&  Co.     Chicago,  1900. 

Fifteen  chapters  and  introduction,  written  by  a  practical  man  for  other 
practical  men. 

TAIT,  P.  G. — Sketch  of  Thermodynamics.     Edinburgh,  1877. 

TAYLOR,  A.    I.  WALLIS. — Refrigerating    and    Ice    Making-  Machinery. 

Crosby  Lockwood.     London,  1896. 
WOOD,  DEVOLSON. — Heat,  Motors  and   Refrigerating  Machines.     New 

York,  1896. 

Especially  interesting-  to  the  refrigerating-  engineer. 
ZENNER,  GUSTAV. — Technical  Thermodynamics.     Leipzig,  1890. 
TREATISES  ON  COMPRESSED  AIR  AND  THE  COMPRESSOR. 
KENNEDY,  ALEX.  C. — Compressed  Air.     New  York,  1892. 
PERNOLET,  A. — Compressed  Air  and  Its  Applications.     Dunod,  Paris. 
A  masterly  treatise  on  the  theory  and  practice  of  compression,  with 
illustrations  of  nearly  every  form  of  compressor  known  up  to  the 
time  of  publication. 

SELFE,  NORMAN. — Compressed  Air  and  Its  Applications.     Proceedings 

Engineers'  Association,  New  South  Wales,  Volume  1. 
Applying  principally  to  its  use  as  the  motive  power  for  tramways. 

MISCELLANEOUS  BOOKS,  ETC. 

ATKINSON,  E. — Ganot's  Elementary  Treatise  on  Physics,  Experimental 
and  Applied.  New  York,  1883. 

BERTHELOT,  E. — Mecanique  Chimique.     Two  volumes.     Paris,  1880. 

COOPER,  MADISON. — Eggs  in  Cold  Storage.  H.  S.  Rich  &  Co.,  Chi- 
cago, 1899. 

DUEHRING,  E. — Principien  der  Mechanic.     Leipzig,  1877. 

FARADAY,  M. — Conservation  of  Force.     London,  1857. 

FISHER,  FERDINAND,  DR. — Das  Wasser.     Berlin,  1891. 

GAGE,  ALFRED  P. — A  Text  Book  on  the  Elements  of  Physics.  Bos- 
ton, 1885. 

HELM,  G. — Energetik  der  Chemischen  Erscheinungen.     Leipzig,  1894. 

HELM,  GEORGE. — Die  Lehre  von  der  Energie.     Leipzig,  1887. 

HELMHOLTZ,  H. — Erhaltung  der  Kraft.     Berlin,  1847. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  355 

HELMHOLTZ,  H. — Wechselwirkung  der  Naturkrafte.     Konigsberg,  1854. 
HERING,  C. — Principles  of  Dynamo  Electric  Machines.  New  York,  1890. 
HIRN,  G.  A. — Equivalent  Mecanique  de  la  Chaleur.     Paris,  1858. 
HIRN,  G.  A. — Theorie  Mecanique  de  la  Chaleur.     Paris,  1876. 
JOULE,  J.  P. — Scientific  Papers.     London,  1884. 

JEUFFRET,  E. — Introduction  a  la  Theorie  de  1'Energie.     Paris,  1883. 
KIM  BALL,  ARTHUR  L. — The  Physical  Properties  of  Gases.    Boston  and 

New  York,  1890. 

LEDOUX,  M. — Ice  Making-  Machines.     New  York,  1879. 
LEAR,  J.  J.  VAN — Die  Thermodynamik  in  der  Chemie.     Leipzig-,  1893. 
MARCHENA,    R.    E.     DE. — Machines  Frig-orifiques  &  Gas  Liquifiable. 

Paris,  1894. 
MAYER,   J.    R. — The  Forces  of  Inorganic  Nature,  1842.     Translated  by 

Tyndall. 
NYSTROM'S  Pocket  Book  of  Mechanics  and  Engineering.     Philadelphia, 

1895. 

OSTWALD,  W. — Die  Energie  und  ihre  Wandlungen.     Leipzig,  1888. 
OSTWALD,  W. — Lehrbuch  der  allgemeinen  Chemie,  vom  Standpunkt  der 

Thermodynamik.     Three  volumes.     Leipzig,  1891-94. 
PLANCK,  MAX. — Grundriss  der  Thermochemie.     Breslau,  1893. 
PLANCK,  MAX. — Erhaltung  der  Energie.     Leipzig,  1887. 
PEC  LET,  E. — Traite  de  la  Chaleur.     Two  volumes.     Paris,  1843. 
PICTET,  RAOUL. — Synthese  de  la  Chaleur.     Geneve,  1879. 
SCHWACKHOEFER,  FRANZ. — Vol.  II,   des  officicllen  Berichts  der  K.  K. 

Osterr.     Central  Commission  fur  die  Weltausstellung  in  Chicago, 

im  Jahre  1893.     Wien,  1894. 
TAIT,    P.    G. — Vorlesungen    ueber   einige   neuere    Fortschritte   in    der 

Physik.     Braunschweig,  1877. 
THURSTON,  R.  H. — The  Animal  as  a  Machine  and  a  Prime  Motor,  and 

the  Laws  of  Energetics.     New  York,  1890. 
THURSTON,  R.  H. — Engine  and  Boiler  Trials  and  of  the  Indicator  and 

Prony  Brake.     New  York,  1890. 
THOMSEN,    I. — Thermochemische    Untersuchungen.       Three    volumes. 

Leipzig,  1883. 
THOMSON,    SIR  W. — Lectures    on    Molecular    Dynamics.      Baltimore, 

1884. 

VERDET,  E. — Theorie  Mecanique  de  la  Chaleur.     Paris,  1872. 
VOORHEES,  GARDNER  T. — Indicating  the  Refrigerating  Machine.     H.  S. 

Rich  &  Co.,  Chicago,  1899. 

WALD,  F. — Die  Energie  und  ihre  Entwerting.     Leipzig,  1889. 
WAALS,  VAN  DER. — Die  Continuitat  des  Gasformigen   und  Fliissigen 

Zustandes.     Leipzig,  1881. 


356  MACHINERY   FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

BUSINESS  OR  TRADE  CATALOGUES. 

With  Illustrations  and  Descriptions  of  Machinery,  Etc. 

Allen  Ice  Machine  Co.  (Ice  Making-  and  Refrigerating-  Machinery,. 
Ammonia  Absorption  System),  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

American  Insulating-  Material  Manufacturing  Co.  (Granite  Rock 
Wool  and  Insulating  Materials),  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Antarctic  Refrigerating  Machine  (Ice  Making  and  Refrigerating  Ma- 
chinery, Ammonia  Compression  System),  Sydney,  N.  S.  W.,  and 
San  Francisco. 

Arctic  Machine  Manufacturing  Co.  (Ice  Making  and  Refrigerating 
Machinery,  Ammonia  Compression  System),  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

Auldjo  Machine  Co.  (Ice  Making  and  Refrigerating  Machine,  Ammonia 
Compression  System),  Australia. 

Austin  Separator  Co.  (Oil  Separators),  Detroit,  Mich. 

Automatic  Refrigerator  Co.  (Ice  Making  and  Refrigerating  Machinery, 
Ammonia  Compression  System),  Cleveland,  Ohio,  U.  S.  A. 

Barber,  A.  H. ,  Manufacturing  Co.  (Ice  Making  and  Refrigerating  Ma- 
chinery, Ammonia  Compression  System),  Chicago,  111. 

Buffalo  Refrigerating  Machine  Co.  (Ice  Making  and  Refrigerating 
Machine^,  Ammonia  Compression  System),  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

Carbondale  Machine  Co.  (Ice  Making  and  Refrigerating  Machinery, 
Ammonia  Absorption  System),  Carbondale,  Pa. 

Case  Refrigerating  Machine  Co.  (Ice  Making  and  Refrigerating  Ma- 
chinery, Ammonia  Compression  System),  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

Challoner's,  Geo.,  Sons  Co.  (Ice  Making  and  Refrigerating  Machinery, 
Ammonia  Compression  System),  Oshkosh,  Wis. 

Clyde  Engineering  Co.  (Ice  Making  and  Refrigerating  Machinery,  Am- 
monia Compression  System),  Sydney,  Australia. 

Cochran  Co.  (Ice  Making  and  Refrigerating  Machinery,  Carbonic  Anhy- 
dride System),  Lorain,  Ohio. 

Creamery  Package  Manufacturing  Co.  (Ice  Making  and  Refrigerating 
Machinery,  Ammonia  Compression  System),  Chicago,  111. 

De  La  Vergne  Refrigerating  Machine  Co.  (Ice  Making  and  Refrigerat- 
ing Machinery,  Ammonia  Compression  System),  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Direct  Separator  Co.    (Water  and  Oil  Separators),  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 

Farrell  &  Rempe  Co.  (Wrought  Iron  Coils  and  Ammonia  Fittings), 
Chicago,  111. 

Frick  Co.  (Ice  Making  and  Refrigerating  Machinery,  Ammonia  Com- 
pression System,  and  Corliss  Engines),  Waynesboro,  Pa. 

Garlock  Packing  Co.  (Ammonia  Packings),  Palmyra,  N.  Y. 

Gifford  Bros.  (Ice  Elevating,  Conveying  and  Lowering  Machinery), 
Hudson,  N.  Y. 

Gloekler,  Bernard  (Cold  Storage  Doors  and  Fasteners),  Pittsburg,  Pa- 


MACHINERY    FOR   REFRIGERATION.  357 

Goodsell  Packing-  Co.  (Ammonia  Packing),  Chicago,  111. 

Hall,  J.  &  E.,  Ltd.  (Ice  Making  and  Refrigerating  Machinery,  Car- 
bonic Anhydride  System),  London,  E.  C.,  England. 

Harrisburg  Pipe  and  Pipe  Bending  Co.,  Ltd.  (Coils  and  Bends,  and 
Ammonia  Fittings  and  Feed  Water  Heaters),  Harrisburg,  Pa. 

Haslam  Foundry  and  Engineering  Co.  (Ice  Making  and  Refrigerating 
Machinery,  Ammonia  Absorption  System),  Derby,  England. 

Henderson,  Thoens&  Gerdes  (Ice  Making  and  Refrigerating  Machinery, 
Ammonia  Absorption  System)  New  Orleans,  La. 

Hercules  Ice  Making  and  Refrigerating  Machinery  (Ammonia  Compres- 
sion System),  Sydney,  Australia,  and  Chicago,  111. 

Hohmann  &  Maurer  Mfg.    Co.  (Thermometers),    Rochester,  N.  Y. 

Hoppes  Manufacturing  Co.  (Water  Purifiers  and  Heaters),  Springfield, 
Ohio. 

Hoppes  Manufacturing  Co.  (Steam  Separators  and  Oil  Eliminators), 
Springfield,  Ohio. 

Humble  &  Nicholson  (Ice  Making  and  Refrigerating  Machinery),  Gee- 
long,  Australia. 

Ideal  Refrigerating  and  Manufacturing  Co.  (Ice  Making  and  Refrig- 
erating Machinery,  Ammonia  Compression  System),  Chicago,  111. 

Jarecki  Manufacturing  Co.  (Ammonia  and  Steam  Fittings),  Erie,  Pa. 

Kilbourn  Refrigerating  Machine  Co.,  Ltd.  (Ice  Making  and  Refriger- 
ating Machinery,  Ammonia  Compression  S3Tstem),  Liverpool,  Eng- 
land. 

Kroeschell  Bros.  Ice  Machine  Co.  (Ice  Making  and  Refrigerating  Ma- 
chinery, Carbonic  Anhydride  System),  Chicago,  111. 

Lewis  Manufacturing  Co.  (Ice  Making  and  Refrigerating  Machinery, 
Ammonia  Compression  System),  New  York. 

MacDonald,  C.  A.  (Ice  Making  and  Refrigerating  Machinery,  Ammonia 
Compression  System),  Chicago,  111.,  and  Sydney,  N.  S.  W. 

Nason  Mfg.  Co.  (Ammonia  and  Steam  Fittings),  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Newburgh  Ice  Machine  and  Engine  Co.  (Ice  Making  and  Refrigerating 
Machinery,  Ammonia  Compression  System),  Newburgh,  N.  Y. 

New  York  Fastener  Co.  (Door  Fasteners),  Newark,  N.  J. 

Pennsylvania  Iron  Works  Co.  (Ice  Making  and  Refrigerating  Ma- 
chinery, Ammonia  Compression  System),  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Philadelphia  Pipe  Bending  Works  (Wrought  Iron  Coils  and  Bends), 
Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Pontifex  &  Sons  (Ice  Making  and  Refrigerating  Machinery,  Ammonia 
Absorption  System),  London. 

Pulsometer  Co.  (Ice  Making  and  Refrigerating  Machinery,  Ammonia 
Compression  System),  London. 

Remington  Machine  Co.  (Ice  Making  and  Refrigerating  Machinery, 
Ammonia  Compression  System),  Wilmington,  Del. 


358  MACHINERY   FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

Ruemmeli  &  Siebert  Refrigerating-  Machine  Co.  (Ice  Making-  and  Refrig- 
erating Machinery,  Gradir works,  Fittings,  etc. ),  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Schwabe,  J.  S.,  &  Sohn  (Ice  Making  and  Refrigerating  Machinery, 
Ammonia  Compression  System),  Saxony,  Germany. 

Seyboth,  L.  (Ice  Making  and  Refrigerating  Machinery),  Munich,  Ger- 
many. 

Siddely  &  Co.  (Ice  Making  and  Refrigerating  Machinery,  Ammonia, 
Absorption  System),  Liverpool,  England. 

Siebe  &  Sorman  (Ice  Making  and  Refrigerating  Machinery,  Ether 
System),  London. 

Sterne  &  Co.  ( Ice  Making  and  Refrigerating  Machinery,  Ammonia  Com- 
pression System),  London,  England. 

Stevenson  Co.,  Limited  (Cold  Storage  Doors),  Chester,  Pa. 

Tight  Joint  Co.  (Ammonia  Fittings),  New  York  City,  N.  Y. 

Triumph  Ice  Machine  Co.  (Ice  Making  and  Refrigerating  Machinery, 
Ammonia  Compression  System),  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

Vaass  &  Littmann(Ice  Making  and  Refrigerating  Machinery  (both  Ab- 
sorption and  Compression  Systems),  Halle-a-Salle,  Germany. 

Vilter  Mfg.  Co.  (Ice  Making  and  Refrigerating  Machinery,  Ammonia 
Compression  System,  and  Corliss  Engines),  Milwaukee,  Wis. 

Vogt,  Henry,  Machine  Co.  (Ice  Making  and  Refrigerating  Machinery, 
Ammonia  Absorption  System),  Louisville,  Ky. 

Vulcan  Iron  Works  (Ice  Making  and  Refrigerating  Machinery,  Am- 
monia Compression  System),  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Westinghouse,  Church,  Kerr  &  Co.  (Ice  Making  and  Refrigerating 
Machinery,  Ammonia  Compression  System,  and  Ice  by  the  Dry 
Plate  and  Block  System),  New  York,  N.  Y.,  and  Pittsburg,  Pa. 

Westinghouse  Machine  Co.  (Single- Acting  Compound  Engines),  Pitts- 
burg,  Pa. 

Westinghouse  Electric  and  Manufacturing  Co.  (Dynamos  and  Appli- 
ances), Pittsburg,  Pa. 

Wheeler  Condenser  and  Engineering  Co.  (Water  Cooling  Towers), 
New  York. 

Wheeler  Condenser  and  Engineering-  Co.  (Auxiliary  Devices  for  In- 
creasing Steam  Engine  Economy), 'New  York. 

Whitlock  Coil  Pipe  Co.  (Coils  and  Bends,  Feed  Water  Heaters),  Elm- 
wood,  Conn.,  U.  S.  A. 

Wolf  Co. ,  Fred  W.  (Ice  Making  and  Refrigerating  Machinery,  Ammo- 
nia Compression  System),  Chicago. 

Wolf  Co.,  Fred  W.  (Ammonia  Fittings  and  Ice  and  Refrigerating  Ma- 
chinery Supplies),  Chicago. 

Wood,  Wm.  T.  &  Co.  (Ice  Tools),  Arlington,  Mass.,  U.  S.  A. 

York  Manufacturing  Co.  (Ice  Making  and  Refrigerating  Machinery, 
Ammonia  Compression  System),  York,  Pa.,  U.  S.  A. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  359 


TOPICAL  INDEX. 

A 

PAGE. 

Absolute  cold 26 

"        pressure 163,  181 

temperature 26,27,177 

zero 27 

Absorber 49 

Absorption  machinery,  Ball,  American,  diagram 266 

efficiency  of 53 

late  American  types 261 

plants,  condensers  for 269 

system 31,  48 

"       a  simple  process 51 

"      cycle  of  operation 50,  262,  266 

diagrams 50,  262,  266 

"       English  machine 51 

"       introduction  of,  into  Australia    48 

Accessibility  of  parts  of  compressor 96,  122 

Adamson  boiler  flue 114 

Affinity  system  (Mort) 21 

Adiabatic  compression  and  expansion 189 

"  of  ammonia,  diagram 196 

of  air 192 

Agitation  of  brine  in  condenser 59,  69 

Air,  adiabatic  compression  and  expansion  of 192 

"     and  ether  machine,  combined 36 

"     compressors 1 19 

"     latent  heat  of 186 

"     properties  of,  table 192 

"     refrigerating  machines 32,  37 

"     specific  heat  of 186 

America,  beginning  of  ice  making  in 19 

Ammonia  absorption  system,  development  of,  Nicolle 21 

adiabatic  compression  and  expansion  of,  diagram 196 

boiling  boint  of 39 

compressor,  work  of,  diagram 239 

condensers 269 

conduction  of  heat  by 73 

double  pipe  condensers 275 

fittings 77-81 

gas,  saturated,  properties  of,  table  347 

liquid,  receiver. 93 

properties  of,  why  used 44 

refrigerating  effect  of 47 

separation  of  oil  from 91 

specific  heatof 184,  185 

valves 277 

vapor  tension  of 39 

Antarctic  beam  machine 142,  143 

compound 55,  150,  152,  154,  162 

Aqua  ammonia,  correction  for  temperature  of,  table 342,  343 

Arctic  compression  machine 306-308 


360  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION, 

PAGE. 

Atmosphere,  extent  of,  into  space 181 

Atmospheric  air,  conduction  of  heat  by 73 

"     conductivity  of 72 

"  condenser 59,  60 

Auldjo's  machine 103,  104,  117 

Australia,  beginning-  of  ice  making-  in 19 

Australian  ammonia  fitting's 80,  81 

"  "  valves 78 

"  ice  making-  plant 55 

"  inventors 24 

pioneers  in  ref rig-eration iv 

Automatic  stoker 215 

B 

Ball  absorption  machine,  diagram 206 

"     ammonia  condensers , 271 

"     compression  machine 298 

"     discharge  valve 277 

Barber,  A.  H.,  Manufacturing  Co. ,  compression  machine 310 

Bell-Coleman  machine 21 

Belleville  boilers 325 

Belted  compressors 146-150 

Bjornstad's  blow-off  cock 225 

Blow-off  cock 225 

Boiler,  Cornish 212-215 

tubular :    218-223 

"         explosions,  causes  of .  .  .208 

"         flues,  strengthening  of 214 

Galloway 216-219 

Lancashire 216-219 

Boilers,  colonial 209 

construction  of 222,  230 

cost  of 205 

effect  of  oil  in 207 

efficiency  of,  tables. 215,  216 

multitubular 207-212 

mountings  of 222-230 

regenerative,  settings  of 222 

settings  of 208,  227-230 

steam 204 

Scotch 327 

water  tube 205-215,  325 

M  un  roe 327 

Boiling  point  of  ammonia  39 

carbonic  acid 39 

refrigerating  media 39,  40 

sulphuric  dioxide 39 

sulphuric  ether 39 

water 27 

Books  on  refrigeration,  appendix 352 

Boring- of  cylinder Ill 

Boulton  &  Watts  boilers 213 

Boyle  compression  machine 132,  133,  303-306 

Boyle's  law 175 

Box,  experiments  on  conduction  of  heat  by 73 

Brine,  agitation  of 59,  69 

circulation  of 68,  70 

Brine  system,  advantages  of . . .  .  .68,  70 

British  thermal  unit. .    .      . 27 

Buffalo  compression  machine 300-302 


MACHINERY   FOR   REFRIGERATION.  361 


Calandria 254 

Calculation  of  compressor  pressures 197 

Calorie 27 

Can  fillers 249,  250 

Capacity  of  compressor,  tables 340,  341 

Carbonic  acid,  advantages  of 44 

boiling-  point  of 39 

conduction  of  heat  by 73 

critical  temperature 44 

experiments  with 47 

g-as,  saturated,  properties  of,  table 347 

machines 45,  46,  268 

"         experiments  on  efficiency  of 46,  47 

lubrication  of 85.  88,  91 

"         on  shipboard,  advantages  of 45 

properties  of 39 

vapor  tension  of 39 

Carre  invented  ammonia  absorption  process 19 

Case  compressor,  section 100,  309 

Casting-  of  compressor  cylinders .110 

Cast  iron  pipes,  weight  of,  table 337 

Catalogues,  business  or  trade,  appendix 356 

Centigrade  thermometer 37 

Centrifugal  pump 68 

Challoner's  Sons  Co.  's  compression  machine 3 11-314 

Charles'  law .176 

Chimney  draft 208,  228 

Chloride  of  calcium 68 

sodium 68 

Circulation  of  brine 68 

condensing  water 59 

Clearance,  loss  by,  diagram 98,  101 

Closed  machines 151 ,  153 

Clyde  Engineering  Co.  compound  compressor 157 

Coal  consumption 137,  231,  233 

"     potential  energy  of 233 

"     required  per  horse  power 227 

"     thermal  efficiency  of 233 

Cochran  Co.  's  carbonic  acid  machine 268 

Cock,  blow-off 225 

"       expansion,  purpose  of 43 

Cocks  for  ammonia 77 

"       versus  valves 77 

Cleaning  boiler  tubes 205 

Clearance 97 

diagram  illustrating  the  effect  of 98 

efficiency,  effected  by 113 

"  Closed  "  machines 151 

Clyde  Engineering  Co.  's  machine 157 

Co-efficient  of  friction 124 

Cold  air  machines  aboard  ship 34 

illustrating  theory  of 32 

Cold,  how  produced  by  machine  30 

Cold  storage  in  1865,  by  Mort  &  Nicolle 78 

"       on  shipboard    49 

"       ship  fitted  for,  diagram 49 

Colonial  boilers .209 

•"  Colonial  "  freezing  machine 23 


362  MACHINERY   FOR  REFRIGERATION, 

PAGE. 

Colonial  Sugar  Co.,  ot  Sydney 259- 

Combined  air  and  ether  machine 3(> 

machines 155 

with  boiler 157 

with  condenser 150 

Combustion  improved  by  heating-  air 153 

of  fuels,  table 348 

"  Compend  of  Mechanical  Refrigeration,"  importance  of iv 

Composition  of  fuels,  table 349 

Compound  ammonia  compressors,  Antarctic 104 

"  Clyde  Engineering  Co 157 

Haslam 158-160 

"  Humble  &  Nicholson,  of  Geelong.  .158 

Linde  Co 159 

Lock 24 

York   Co 24,   108 

Compound  ammonia  machines,  Antarctic,  duplex 152 

Antarctic,  enclosed 153,  154,  160-168 

Compound  compressor  by  theoretical  diagrams .  .     166 

Compound  compressor  cylinders,  use  of  condensers  in 117 

Compound  compressor  system 15G 

Compound  expansion 141 

Compound  submerged  condensers,  correct  principle 62 

wrong  principle 6& 

Compressed  air,  literature  on,  appendix 354 

Compressed  air  machine 23,  24 

by  author 123- 

Compressed  air  machines,  power  required  by 35 

Compression,  adiabatic 189,  196 

of  air 192 

Compression  and  expansion,  diagram 32. 

Compression,  compound 156 

curves  of 97 

isothermal 187 

heat  and  pressure  by,  diagram 19& 

hyperbolic  logarithms  for,  table 189 

Compression  machine,  Arctic 308 

Ball 298 

Barber 310 

Boyle 306 

Buffalo 302 

Challoner   312-314 

first  in  New  South  Wales 23 

Hercules,  latest  design 297 

Ideal,  effect  of  motion,  diagram 316 

Ideal,  section 315 

Stallman 321 

relation  of  parts 57 

Vulcan 317,  318,  319 

Compression  of  gas 94 

Compression  of  gases 1 74,  186 

table 178 

Compression  plant,  leading  features 56 

Compression  system,  forerunner  of 19 

Compression  systems,  general  principles  of  all 56 

Compressor,  accessibility  of  parts 122 

and  engine  pistons,  mean  speed,  table .  .335 

and  steam  engine 117 

arrangement  of  engine  and 124 

capacity,  table , 340,  341 


MACHINERY   FOR  REFRIGERATION.  363 

PAGE. 

Compressor,  construction  of 101 

Compressor  cylinder,  Buffalo,  section 301 

Frick  Co.'s 280 

"        wear  of Ill 

"  desirable  qualities  of 95 

efficiency  of 234 

functions  of 95 

horizontal  arrangement  of  engine  and 126 

how  to  plot  diagrams  of  work  of 137 

importance  of 94 

indicating-  the 97 

"  lubrication  of 109 

piston,  work  to  be  done  by 118 

single-acting  and  compound,  comparison  between 163 

single-acting  and  engine 136,  137 

"  single-acting,  diagram 165 

supply  of  oil  to 84 

"  vertical,  horizontal  engine 128 

vertical,  overhanging  fly  wheels 134 

with  two  engines 130 

Compressors,  air 119 

belted 146 

"  compound  ammonia 155 

geared 145 

no  oil  necessary  in  some 85 

single  versus  double-acting 121 

"  two  vertical  and  horizontal  engine 127 

vertical,  with  inside  fly  wheels 129 

"  vertical,  with  outside  fly  wheels 130 

with  vertical  engine 131 

Condenser  pressure,  atmospheric 60,  61,  65 

"  evaporative 66 

hot  and  cold  climates 239 

or  cooler 58 

submerged 59,  62.  63 

Condenser  water,  velocity  of 74 

Condensers 58,  243,  269 

"  actual  proportions  of 76 

atmospheric 59,  65 

double  pipe  ammonia 275 

evaporative 64-67 

for  absorption  plants 269 

functions  of 71 

pipe  required  for 76 

submerged 59 

triplex 270 

use  of,  in  compound  compressor  cylinders 117 

Vogt,  for  absorption  machines 270 

Condensing  water,  re-use  of 64 

Condensing  water  temperatures 236 

Conducting  power  of  cylinders 74 

Conductivity  of  metal 72 

Conductors  of  heat,  tables 72 

' '  Consolidated  ' '  compressor 109 

Construction  of  boilers 222-230 

Construction  of  compressor 101 

Construction  of  refrigerating  machinery 121 

Consumption  of  coal 227,  231 

Conversion  factors,  table 346 

Cooling  processes 67 


364  MACHINERY   FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

PAGE. 

Cooling-  towers 67,  278 

Copper,  conductivity  of 72 

Cornish  boiler 212-215 

tubular  boiler 218-223 

Cost,  first,  not  the  most  importance 121 

Cost  of  boilers 205 

Creamery  Package  Manufacturing-  Co 320 

Cryogen  machine 106 

Cubic  feet  of  g-as  per  ton  refrigeration,  table 238 

Cullsn,  Dr 17 

Curves  of  compression 97 

Cylinder,  a  true 114,  115 

Cylinders,  conducting-  power  of 74 

D 

De-aerated  water  for  ice  molds 247 

Definition  of  heat  terms 26 

De  La  Vergne  compressor 108 

De  La  Vergne  plant,  g-eneral  arrangement  of 61 

Design  and  construction  of  refrigerating  machinery 121 

Desiccator,  importance  of 51 

Diagonal  connection  of  engine  and  compressor 140 

Diagram  illustrating  work  of  Corliss  engine  and  two  compressors.  .138 

how  to  plot,  of  compressor's  work 137 

"  indicator,  from  belt-driven  machines 148,  149 

"  indicator,  from  compound  compressor 166-174 

"  indicator,  from  diagonal  connection 144 

indicator  from  toggle  machines 316 

indicator,  right-angle  connection 135  138 

"  indicator,  small,  straight  line  compressor .137 

indicator,  single-acting  compressor 118-120 

indicator,  straight  line  compressor 119 

Direct  expansion  system,  advantages  of 69 

Discharge  from  compressor 111-113,  165 

Discharge  valve 277 

Discs  on  expansion  pipes   69 

Distillation  for  can  ice  from  exhaust  and  live  steam 141 

by  triple  effect 253 

Distilled  water 253-260 

"     triple  effect,  diagram 252 

Distilling  apparatus 252 

Double-acting  compressors,  air 23,  112,  119 

ammonia 99,101,104,105,116,145 

ether 22 

Double  pipe  ammonia  condensers 275 

Dry  compression,  drying  action,  with  cold  air 69 

duplex  ammonia  compressor 152 

DuTremblay  ether  engine 36 

E 

Eclipse  pump 280 

Economizer 246 

Economy  of  high  pressure  steam,  table 227 

Effect  of  climate 236 

Efficiency  as  affected  by  clearance 113 

Efficiency  of  boilers,  tables 215.  216 

coal 233 

"  compressor 95,  2o4,  236 

compressor  and  engine,  table 235 


MACHINERY   FOR  REFRIGERATION,  365 

PAGE. 

Efficiency  of  engine 23& 

fuel,  boiler  and  engine. 233 

ice  plants 231-251 

refrigerating  plant 94 

"  thermal,  steam  engines 228-230 

Electrical  and  mechanical  unit  equivalents,  table 345 

Electric  welding 81 

Elevation,  process  of 67 

Energy  of  gas  at  different  stages  of  compression,  calculations  .  .196-203 

Engine  and  compressor  pistons,  mean  speed  of,  table 335- 

Engine,  Leavitt,  pumping 228-230 

Engines,  mean  pressure  of  steam,  and  cylinders  of,  table 334 

"          steam,  efficiency  of 233 

thermal  efficiency  of 228-230 

Equivalent,  Joule's 185 

Equivalent  measures  of  volume 350 

Equivalents,  electrical  and  mechanical  unit,  table 345 

Equalizer,  Vogt  absorption  plant 264 

Ether,  experiments  with 17 

Ether  machines,  Harrison 19-  22 

Siebe  &  Gorman 21 

Twining 19- 

Ether,  vapor  tension  of 39 

Evaporated  value  of  fuels,  table 348 

Evaporating  water,  machine  for 17 

Evaporation  condensers 64,  67 

in  dry  climates 60 

per  pound  of  coal 219,  23£ 

to  produce  cold 17,  19,  41,  43,  49 

Evaporator,  water 32T 

Exchanger,  importance  of 51 

Vogt  absorption  plant 264 

Exhaust  steam  for  distilled  water 240 

Exhaust  steam  purifier 241 

Expansion,  adiabatic 189- 

of  air 192 

by  stages 23,  24,  36 

Expansion,  latent  heat  of 184,  185 

Expansion  of  gases 174,  186 

"      diagram 183 

steam,  table 227 

Expansion  valve,  purpose  of 43- 

Explosions,  boiler,  causes  of 208 

F 

Factors,  conversion,  table 346 

Feed  water  heaters 243-245 

Filter  for  exhaust  steam  distilled  water 247 

Filters  . ." 243-249 

Flashing  valve 49,  77 

Flues,  strengthening  of 214 

Fly  wheel,  enormous 123 

power  required  by 124 

overhung 128,  130 

Food  products,  first  proposal  to  refrigerate  for  shipment 25,  4& 

specific  heat  of,  table 29 

Forecooler    240,  248 

Freezing  point  of  water 27 

Freezing  tank 68- 

"     functions  of 71 


366  MACHINERY   FOR   REFRIGERATION. 

PAGE. 

Fresh  Food  and  Ice  Co 156,  296 

Frick  Co.  's  ammonia  condensers 272 

"     ammoni a  val ve 278 

"     compressor 109 

"  "     engine  and  compressor,  section  of 125 

"     latest  ammonia  compressor  cylinder 280 

"     machine,  latest  design 279 

Friction  of  fly  wheel 1 24 

machine 95,  96 

Fuels,  average  composition  of,  table 349 

"        evaporated  value  of,  table 348 

"         heat  of  combustion  of,  table 348 

"         saving  of,  table 336 

value  of  wood,  table 349 

"         weight  and  combustion  of,  table 349 

G 

Galloway  boiler 216-219 

tubes 216 

Gas,  ammonia,  saturated,  properties  of,  table 347 

"      carbonic  acid,  saturated,  properties  of,  table .' .  .  .347 

"      compression  of 94 

"      cubic  feet  of,  per  ton  refrigeration,  table 238 

"      discharge Ill 

"      liquefied  under  pressure 30 

"      nature  of 124 

"      pressure 103 

Gas  pressures,  table 178-181 

Gases,  compression  of 94,  174,  186 

table 178 

conductive  power  of 72 

"        critical  temperature  of 39 

"        expansion  of 174,  186 

"        expansion  of,  diagram 183 

"        formula  for  pressure,  weight  and  volume 181 

"        hyperbolic  logarithms  for  calculating 189 

"        properties  of 38 

tables 191,346 

"        relative  efficiency  of 43 

"        specific  heat  of 28,  181-186 

"        volume  of 179-181 

in  cylinder  at  different  stages  of  compression,  table.  197 

Gas,  sulphur  dioxide,  saturated,  properties  of,  table 347 

Gas  volumes  and  pressures   at  different   stages  of  compression,  cal- 
culations  196-203 

Gauge  pressures 179 

Gauges,  tables 344 

Gay-Lussac,  researches  of 176 

Geared  compressors 145,  146 

Generator,  Vogt  absorption  plant 263 

Gifford  machine ;: 19 

Glycerine  as  a  lubricant 85,  88,  91 

Gorrie,  Dr.  John,  experiments  of 19 

Grease  separators 242 

H 

Hagen's  experiments 18 

Hall's  carbonic  acid  machine 45 

Harrison,  James,  in  Australia > 19 

Harrison's  duplex  (ether)  ice  machine,  diagram  of 22 


MACHINERY   FOR  REFRIGERATION,  367 

PAGE. 

Harrison's  ether  machine,  diagram  of 20 

Haslam  cold  air  machine 34 

"       compound  compressor 159,  160 

Heat  abstracted  equivalent  to  one  ton  refrigeration,  table  of 75 

"  Heat"  and  **  Cold,"  relative  terms 26 

Heat  and  its  applications,  literature  on,  appendix 352 

Heat  and  pressure  by  compression,  diagram 193 

Heaters,  feed  water   242-245 

Heat,  latent 28 

of  air 186 

"        "        of  expansion 184,  185 

"         "         of  liquefaction 28,  41 

of  vaporization 28,  42 

mechanical  equivalent  of 175,  185 

of  combustion  of  fuels,  table 348 

sensible 26 

specific 27 

of  air 186 

"        of  ammonia 1 84,  185 

of  brine , 29 

of  ice 28 

of  gases  181-186 

Heat  terms,  illustrations  of 28 

"     to  be  abstracted  in  the  work  of  refrigeration 29 

"      transmission  of,  through  various  media 73,  74 

"     unit 27 

Hercules  machine 103.  104,  116.  296,  297 

High  pressure  cylinder,  section  of 112 

Holden  ice  making  system 330 

Horizontal  arrangement  of  engine  and  compressor 126 

compressors 99,  101,  112 

engine  and  two  vertical  compressors 127 

engines 115,  116,  119,  125,  126,  133,  143 

"       and  compressors 34-  36 

"  versus  vertical  tubes  in  condenser 75 

Humble  &  Nicholson,  of  Geelong,  compound  compressors 158 

Humid  gas 186 

Hydrogen,  conduction  of  heat  by 72,  73 

Hyperbolic  logarithms,  table 189 

I 

"  Ice  and  Refrigeration  "  established iv 

Ice  and  salt 17,  26 

Ice  cream 17,  26 

Ice  freezing  tank 68 

Ice,  from  distilled  water 234 

"   from  impure  steam 242 

Ice  machine,  first  successful,  for  manufacturing  purposes 21 

Ice  made  in  Australia  in  1860 21 

Ice  making  in  America,  beginning  of 19 

"  "          Australia,  beginning  of 19 

India 17 

"     plant,  Australian 55 

"     system,  Holden 330 

Ice  per  ton  of  coal 231 

Ice  plant  efficiencies 231-251 

Ice  and  Cold  Machine  Co.  's  absorption  machine 2H5 

"  compression  machine 298 

Ideal  compression  machine,  effect  of  motion,  diagram 315,  316 

Inclosed  compressors 101,  153,  155 


368  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION, 

PAGE, 

Incrustation  of  boilers 206,  208 

India,  natural  ice  making-  in 17 

Indicating-  the  compressor 97 

Indicator  cards  from  compressor 118 

"       Antarctic  compressor 168-170 

"       from  Corliss  engine  and  compressor 120 

"       from  steam  and  air  cylinder 119 

Indicators  for  compressors 166,  170,  174,  190 

Interceptors  of  dirt 92 

of  oil 89,  90 

Iiiterchang-er  of  temperature 50,  52 

Intrinsic  energy 32,  33,  193,  199 

Iron,  conductivity  of 72 

Isothermal  compression  and  expansion  of  g"as,  diagram 187 

J 

Joints,  materials  for 123 

Joule's  equivalent 185 

K 

Kidd,  Hector 260 

Kilburn  inclosed  machine 153 

Kirk,  Dr.,  regenerative  air  machine 21 

Kroeschell  Bros,  carbonic  acid  machine 269 

L 

Lancashire  boiler 216-219 

Lantern  bushes   85,  86,  106,  109 

Latent  heat 28 

"     of  air 186 

"         "     of  expansion 184,  185 

"         "     of  liquefaction 28.  41 

"     of  vaporization 28,  42 

Lavoisier's  experiments 17 

Laws  of  g-ases 174 

Leavitt  pumping-  engine 228-230 

Leslie's  experiments  with  sulphuric  acid  and  water 17 

Linde  compound  compressors 159 

"      compressor,  American  type,  section 288 

"  and  engine,  plan  of 116 

"       system  for  cooling- 69 

"      oiling-  apparatus 85 

Liquefaction,  latent  heat  of 41 

Liquefied  air  machine 38 

Literature  on  compressed  air,  appendix. 354 

heat  and  its  application,  appendix 352 

refrig-erating-  machinery,  appendix 353 

"  refrigeration  and  allied  subjects,  appendix 351 

thermo-dynamics,  appendix 353 

Lock's  compound  compressor 24,  158 

Locomotive  type  boiler 130' 

Lubricating-  pump 87 

Lubrication  of  compressor 109 

piston 1 09 

M 

MacDonald,  C.  A.,  compression  machine 29T 

Mag-nus,  experiments  by  Prof 72 

Marine  installations 34,  35,  45,  49- 

Mariotte's  law 175 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  369 

PAGE. 

Measures  of  volume 350 

Mechanical  and  electrical  unit  equivalents,  table 345 

Mercury  wells 190 

Metals,  conductivity  of  72 

relative  weights  of,  table 350 

Modern  ice  machine 55 

Mort,  T.  S 296 

"     experiments  of 21,  25 

Mountings  of  boilers t 222-230 

Multitubular  boilers 207-212 

Munroe,  R.,  &  Sons  boilers 327 

N 

Newburgh  Ice  Machine  and  Engine  Co.  's  compressor 284 

Nicolle,  Ed.,  development  of  ammonia  absorption  system 21 

"  "       personality  of 48 

Nitrate  of  ammonia  process  for  shipboard 23 

o 

Oil  about  compressor 84 

Oil  and  grease  separators 242 

Oil,  effect  of,  in  boilers 207 

"  effect  of,  upon  clearance 84 

Oiling  apparatus,  Linde  system 85 

devices 108 

Oil  injection  in  compressor 109,  113 

Oil  interceptor 87 

Oil,  methods  of  injecting,  into  compressor 84-99 

Oil  pump 85 

"  "  section 86 

Oil,  separation  of,  from  ammonia 91 

Oil  separators 92 

Oil  separator  with  "baffles, "  section  of 89 

wire  screens,  section  of 90 

Oil,  unnecessary  in  some  compressors 85 

"     use  of,  in  refrigerating  systems 84 

P 

Pamphlets  on  refrigeration,  appendix 352 

Pasteur  filter 247 

Penney  horizontal  double-acting  machine 285 

Pennsylvania  Iron  Works  machine 133,  306 

Perkins,  Jacob,  machine 18,  19 

Pioneers  in  refrigeration iv 

Pipe  bending  methods 82,  83 

Pipe  coils 82 

Pipe,  effective  surface,  table  of 75 

"     length  of,  required 75 

Pipes  and  joints 79 

"      weight  of  cast  iron,  table 337 

Pipe  welding 81 

Piston,  ideal 114 

lubrication  of 109 

Piston  rings Ill 

Piston,  work  of 109 

"       work  to  be  done  by 118 

Pistons  of  engine  and  compressor 121 

Postle's  cold  air  machine,  1868 .24 

Pots 254 

Premier  water  tube  boiler 324 

(24) 


370  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

PAGE. 

Pressure  of  gas  at  different  stages  of  compression,  calculations.  196-203 

of  g-ases,  table 178-18] 

of  steam  in  cylinders  of  engines,  table 334 

Prime  movers,  tables 338,  339 

Properties  of  gases 38 

"     tables 191,  346 

of  saturated  ammonia  gas,  table 347 

of  saturated  carbonic  acid  gas,  table 347 

of  saturated  sulphur  dioxide  gas,  table 347 

Pulley,  work  of 171-173 

Pump,  Eclips'e 280 

for  oil  85,  87,  102 

"         for  vacuum  re-absorber 52 

Pumping  engine,  Leavitt 228-230 

Purifying  exhaust  steam,  process 241 

Q 

Quadruple  expansion  engine   233 

Queensland  machines 106 

R 

Reboiler 247 

Reboring  of  cylinders Ill 

Receiver,  liquid  ammonia 93 

Refrigerating  machine,  relation  of  parts  57 

Refrigerating  machinery,  design  and  construction  of 121 

"  literature  on,  appendix 353 

Refrigerating  machine,  small 146-155 

Refrigerating  media,  boiling  points  of 39,  40 

"         diagram  showing  latent  heat  of 42 

Refrigerating  on  shipboard,  first  proposal  for 48 

Refrigerating  plant,  efficiency  of 94 

Refrigerating  systems,  use  of  oil  in 84 

Refrigeration  and  allied  subjects,  literature  on,  appendix 51 

artificial,  first  beginnings  of 17 

books  on,  appendix 352 

business,   importance  of iv 

"  by  nitrate  of  ammonia 22 

"  cubic  feet  of  gas  per  ton  of,  table 238 

"  heat  to  be  abstracted  in  the  work  of 29 

"  pamphlets  on,  appendix 352 

"  pioneers  of iv 

systems  of,  in  use 30 

treatises,  appendix 352 

Refrigerator 68 

Refrigerators,  first  ammonia,  in  Sydney 57 

functions  of 71 

Regenerative  boiler  settings 222 

Regnault,  researches  of 177 

Remington  compressor,  latest  design,  description 288 

machine 153 

Resistance  of  compressor  piston 97 

Right-angled  connection  of  machine 125-136 

"  "  "         diagram    135 

Rudberg,  researches  of 177 

s 

Saving  of  fuel,  table 336 

Scale 205 

Scotch  boilers .  .  327 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  371 

PAGE. 

Sensible  heat 26 

Separator,  oil,  with  "  baffles, "  section  of 89 

"      with  wire  screens,  section  of 90 

Separators,  oil  and  grease 92,  242 

Settings,  boiler 208,  227-230 

regenerative,  boiler 222 

Sextuple  effect  distilling-  plant 259 

Shipboard  machines 155 

Shipboard  refrigeration 36,  37,  49 

Single  versus  double-acting  compressors 121 

Skimmer 246 

Sloper's,  Geo.  Beven,  patent 17 

Specific  heat 27 

"    of  air 186 

"    of  ammonia 184,  185 

"    of  brine 29 

"    of  ice 28 

"    of  gases 28,  181-186 

"    of  solids 29 

Speed  of  compressor  and  engine  pistons,  table 335 

Stallman  compression  machine 321,  323 

Steam  engine,  efficiency  of 233 

Steam  per  horse  power 215,  234 

"       pressure  of,  in  cylinders  of  engines,  table 334 

Steam  purifiers 241-243 

Still,  Vogt  absorption  plant 263 

Stocker's,  John,  water  cooling  tower 276 

Straight  line  compressors 119,  120 

Submerged  condensers 58 

compound,  correct  principle 62 

„  wrong  principle 63 

Sulphur  dioxide  gas,  saturated,  properties  of,  table 347 

Sulphuric  acid,  vapor  tension  of 39 

Sulphuric  dioxide,  boiling  point  of 39 

Sulphuric  ether,  boiling  point  of 39 

Systems  of  refrigeration,  different,  in  use 30,  31 

T 

Tandem  compound  engines  99,  133,  141 

compound  machine 141 

Technical  connection 140 

Temperature,  critical,  of  gases . .  39 

effect  of,  on  compressor  castings 110 

"  of  aqua  ammonia,  correction  of,  table 342,  343 

of  gases 179-181 

Temperatures,  condensing  water 236 

exchange  of,  in  condensers  and  freezing  tanks 71 

Theory  of  compressed  air  machines 32,  33 

Thermal  efficiency  of  coal 233 

steam  engines 228-230 

Thermodynamics,  literature  on,  appendix 353 

Thermometers,  different,  in  use 27 

Towers,  cooling 276 

Trap 93 

Treatises  on  refrigeration,  appendix 352 

Trevithick,  Richard 213 

Triplex  condensers 270 

Triple  effect  distilled  water,  diagram.    252 

process   253-260 

Triumph  American  compressor  machine 293-295 


372  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION, 

PAGE. 

Tubes,  cleaning- 205 

"  Galloway 216 

"  horizontal  versus  vertical  in  condenser 75 

"  water,  advantag-es  of 325 

Twining-  in  America 19 

V 

Vallance  machine  17 

Valve,  expansion,  purpose  of 43 

Valves,  Australian,  ammonia 78 

"       for  reg-ulation 77 

"       horizontal  to  compressor 99,  101 

"       in  pistons 104,  105,  108,  114,  135,  143,  152,  162 

"       manifold 78 

"       recent  inventions 277 

"       slide  to  compressor 20,  28 

"       with  by-pass 79 

Vaporization,  latent  heat  of 42 

Vapor  tension  of  g-ases  and  vapors 39 

"       of  water 39 

Velocity  of  condensing-  water 74 

Vertical  compressor,  horizontal  engine 128 

Vilter  ammonia  compressor  machine 289 

Vogt  absorption  system,  diagram 262-264 

"       condensers  for  absorption  machines 270 

"       type  of  absorption  machine     261 

Volume,  equivalent  measures  of 350 

Volume  of  gas  at  different  stages  of  compression,  calculations. .  .196-203 

Volume  of  gases 179-181 

Vulcan  compression  machine 317,  318,  319 

W 

Water  cooling  towers 276 

Water,  distilled 253-260 

Water  evaporator 327 

Water  tube  boilers 205-215,  325,  327 

Water  tubes,  advantages  of 325 

Water,  vapor  tension  of 39 

Weight  and  comparative  fuel  value  of  wood,  table 349 

"       of  cast  iron  pipes,  table 337 

"      of  steam  per  horse  power 234 

Weights  of  metals,  table 350 

Welding  pipe 82 

Wells  for  thermometers 190 

Westerlin  &  Campbell's  condenser 274 

Westinghouse  machine 151 

Wolf,  Fred  W.,  Co.  's  American  valve 277 

"  "         ammonia  condensers 273 

"         latest  designs  American  Linde  machine., 289 

Wood,  weight  and  comparative  fuel  value  of,  table 349 

Worms  for  distillation 243 

Wrought  iron,  conductivity  of 72 

Y 

York  Co.'s  compression  machine .24,  108,  109,  115,  117,  158,  282,  284 

Z 
Zero  point 26 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION, 


373 


CLASSIFIED    TRADE    INDEX 

TO 

ADVERTISERS. 


PAGE. 
AMMONIA. 

Ammonia  Co.,  of  Australia 

opposite  inside  front  cover 

Barrett  Manufacturing  Co 383 

Herf  &  Frerichs  Chemical  Co 416 

Linde  Australian  Refrigeration  Co 409 

National  Ammonia  Co 

opposite  inside  front  cover 

AMMONIA   FITTINGS. 
(SEE  FITTINGS,  AMMONIA.) 

AMMONIA    PACKING. 

Garlock  Packing  Co 3% 

ARCHITECTS    AND    ENGINEERS. 

Brubaker,  Samuel  H.,  &  Co 393 

Clyde  Engineering  Co.,  Ltd 394 

Mort's  Dock  and  Engineering  Co 388 

BOILERS. 

Clyde  Engineering  Co.,  Ltd 394 

Frick  Co 414,  415 

Mort's  Dock  and  Engineering  Co 388 

Munroe,  R.,  &  Sons 393 

Newburgh  Ice  Machine  and  Engine  Co. 412 

Pennsylvania  Iron  Works  Co 

inside  back  cover  and  page  opposite 

Remington  Machine  Co 381 

Vogt,  Henry,  Machine  Co 376 

York  Manufacturing  Co 410,  411 

BOILER  TUBE  CLEANERS. 

Union  Boiler  Tube  Cleaner  Co 387 

BRINE  AND  FR  EEZI  NG  TAN  KS. 

Frick  Co 414,  415 

Marlin  &  Co.,  Inc 385 

Munroe,  R.,  &  Sons 393 

Newburgh  Ice  Machine  and  Engine  Co. 412 

Pennsylvania  Iron  Works  Co 

. . .  inside  back  cover  and  page  opposite 

Scaife,  Wm.  B.,  &  Sons 400 

Vogt,  Henry,  Machine  Co 376 

York  Manufacturing  Co 410,  411 

CENTRIFUGAL   PUMPS. 

Morris  Machine  Works  ...  ...  399 


PAGE. 

COILS  AND  BENDS. 

Barber,  A.  H.,  Manufacturing  Co 379 

Clyde  Engineering  Co.,  Ltd 394 

Farrell  &  Rempe  Co 378 

Harrisburg  Pipe  and  Pipe  Bending  Co. 382 

Philadelphia  Pipe  Bending  Works 379 

Whitlock  Coil  Pipe  Co 408 

CONDENSERS. 

Arctic  Machine  Co 397 

Barber,  A.  H.,  Manufacturing  Co 379 

Challoner's,  George,  Sons  Co 398 

Clyde  Engineering  Co.,  Ltd 394 

Cochran  Co 377 

Creamery  PackageiManufacturing  Co.380 

Farrell  &  Rempe  Co 378 

Frick  Co 414,  415 

Ice  and  Cold  Machine  Co 407 

Ideal  Refrigerating  and   Manufactur- 
ing Co 395 

Linde  Australian  Refrigeration  Co 409 

MacDonald,  C.  A 406 

Mort's  Dock  and  Engineering  Co 388 

Newburgh  Ice  Machine  and  Engine  Co. 412 

Pennsylvania  Iron  Works  Co 

inside  back  cover  and  page  opposite 

Remington  Machine  Co 381 

Triumph  Ice  Machine  Co 

third  page  advertisements  in  front 

Vilter  Manufacturing  Co 417 

Vogt,  Henry,  Machine  Co 376 

Vulcan  Iron  Works : 384 

Westerlin  &  Campbell 401 

Wolf,  Fred  W.,  Co inside  front  cover 

York  Manufacturing  Co 410,  411 

CONSULTING  ENGINEERS. 

Selfe,  Norman  389 

Westerlin  &  Campbell 401 


COOLING  TOWERS. 

Stocker,  Geo.  J 


.403 


DOORS. 

(Refrigerator  and  Cold  Storage.) 
Stevenson  Co.,  Ltd 413 


374 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


PAGE. 
ENGINES. 

Clyde  Engineering  Co.,  Ltd 394 

Frick  Co 414,  415 

Mort's  Dock  and  Engineering-  Co 388 

Newburgh  Ice  Machine  and  Engine  Co.  412 

Pennsylvania  Iron 'Works  Co 

inside  back  cover  and  pag-e  opposite 

Vilter  Manufacturing  Co ....  417 

Vulcan  Iron  Works 384 

York  Manufacturing  Co 410,  411 


ENGRAVERS. 

Illinois  Engraving  Co 

Stromberg,  Allen  &  Co.     .. 


.394 
395 


FEED    WATER     HEATERS     AND     PURIFIERS. 

Harrisburg  Pipe  and  Pipe  Bending  Co. 332 

Robertson,  Jas.  L.,  &  Sons 399 

Whitlock  Coil  Pipe  Co 408 


FILTERS. 

(Water.) 

Marlin  &  Co.,  Inc 

Scaife,  Wm.  B.,  &  Sons. . . 


385 

...  400 


FITTINGS. 

(Ammonia.) 

Arctic  Machine  Co 397 

Barber,  A.  H.,  Manufacturing  Co. .   ..379 

Challoner's,  George,  Sons  Co 398 

Clyde  Engineering  Co.,  Ltd 394 

Cochran  Co 377 

Creamery  Package  Manufacturing-  Co. 380 

Frick  Co 414,  415 

Harrisburg- Pipe  and  Pipe  Bending  Co. 382 

Ice  and  Cold  Machine  Co 407 

Ideal  Refrigerating  and    Manufactur- 
ing-Co  395 

Linde  Australian  Refrigeration  Co.    ..409 

MacDonald,  C.  A   406 

Mort's  Dock  and  Engineering  Co 388 

Newburgh  Ice  Machine  and  Engine  Co. 412 
Pennsylvania  Iron  Works  Co 

. .  .inside  back  cover  and  page  opposite 

Remington  Machine  Co 381 

Triumph  Ice  Machine  Co 

third  page  advertisements  in  front 

Vilter  Manufacturing  Co 417 

Vogt,  Henry,  Machine  Co 376 

Vulcan  Iron  Works 384 

Westerlin  &  Campbell 401 

Wolf,  Fred  W.,  Co inside  front  cover 

York  Manufacturing  Co 410,  411 

FLUE    CLEANERS. 

Union  Boiler  Tube  Cleaner  Co 387 

FREEZING     ESTABLISHMENT. 

New  South  Wales  Fresh  Food  and  Ice 
Co...  ...388 


PAGE. 
ICE  AND  REFRIGERATING  MACHINERY. 

Arctic  Machine  Co 397 

Barber,  A.  H.,  Manufacturing  Co 379 

Challoner's,  George,  Sons  Co 398 

Clyde  Engineering  Co.,  Ltd 394 

Cochran  Co 377 

Creamery  Package  Manufacturing  Co. 380 

Frick  Co 414,  415 

Ice  and  Cold  Machine  Co 407 

Ideal   Refrigerating  and  Manufactur- 
ing Co  395 

Linde  Australian  Refrig-eration  Co 409 

MacDonald,  C.  A   406 

Mort's  Dock  and  Engineering  Co 388 

Newburgh  Ice  Machine  and  Engine  Co.  412 

Pennsylvania  Iron  Works  Co 

. .  .inside  back  cover  and  page  opposite 

Remington  Machine  Co 381 

Spiers,  James,  Jr 396 

Triumph  Ice  Machine  Co 

third  page  advertisements  in  front 

Vilter  Manufacturing  Co 417 

Vogt,  Henry,  Machine  Co 376 

Vulcan  Iron  Works 384 

Westerlin  &   Campbell   401 

Wolf,  Fred  W.  Co inside  front  cover 

York  Manufacturing-  Co 410,411. 

ICE  CAN  FILLERS. 

Burns,  Jas.  F 393 

Sauls  Bros...  ...389 


ICE  CANS. 

Marlin  &  Co.,  Inc 385 

Scaife,  Wm.  B.  &  Sons 400 

INDICATORS. 

Robertson,  Jas.  L.,  &  Sons 399 

INSULATING   MATERIALS. 

Barrett  Manufacturing  Co 383 

Bird,  F.  W.,&  Son 399 

Cabot,  Samuel 391 

Gilmour,  R.  M.,  Co 391 

Johns,  H.  W.,  Manufacturing  Co 391 

Nonpareil  Cork  Co 384 

U.  S.  Mineral  Wool  Co  391 

PACKINGS. 

Garlock  Packing  Co 396 


PRINTERS    AND    STATIONERS. 

Stromberg,  Allen  &  Co 395 

REFRIGERATING    MACHINERY. 

(SEE  ICE  AND  REFRIGERATING  MA- 
CHINERY.) 


SEPARATORS. 

(Oil  and  Water.) 
Robertson,  Jas.  L.,  &  Sons  . 


.399 


ADVERTISEMENTS. 


376 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


Our  Mighty  Midget 
Ice  and  Refrigerating  Machine 


OCCUPIES  LITTLE  SPACE. 
DOES  GREAT  WORK  . 


DESIGNED   ESPECIALLY   FOR    PACKING   HOUSES, 
CREAMERIES,    SMALL  REFRIGERATING    PLANTS, 

THREE  TO  FIVE  TONS   CAPACITY.    ::::::: 


HENRY  VOGT  MACHINE  CO, 

LOUISVILLE,  KY. 

New  Catalogue  on  Application 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


377 


MACHINERY 
FOR   REFRIGERATION 


FOR  STEAM,  WATER  OR 
ELECTRIC  POWER. 


Designed  particularly  for  the  Cold  Storage 
of  Food  Products,  Fish  Freezing,  Ice  Cream 
Manufacture  and  the  like,  where  safety, 
efficiency  and  the  absence  of  offensive 
odors  is  indispensable 


IS   THE   SPECIALTY   OF 


THE    COCHRAN   COMPANY, 

LORAIN,   OHIO. 


378 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


Farrell  &  Rempe  Co 


MANUFACTURERS   OF 


WROUGHT  IRON 

COILS 


FOR  ICE  AND 

REFRIGERATING 

MACHINES 

PIPE  COILS  A\ADE 


ELECTRICITY 


All  Ammonia  Coils  made  of  the  very  finest  quality  of  Pipe 
(in  any  desired  continuous  length)  and  tested  to  400 
pounds  air  pressure.  Coils  of  all  descriptions  for  Heaters, 
Soap  Makers,  Blast  Furnaces,  etc. 


Manufacturers  of 
Ammonia  Pipe  and  Fittings 


Pipe  Bending 
of  all  kinds  a  Specialty. 


PRICES 

FURNISHED  ON 
APPLICATION. 


OFFICE  AND  WORKS: 

Cor.  Sacramento  and  Carroll  Avenues,  Chicago 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


379 


C.  BAILE.  H.  LEIDY. 

PHILADELPHIA  PIPE  BENDING  WORKS 

PHIL  ADELPHI A 


BARBER  COMPRESSOR 

BUILT    BY 

A.  H.  BARBER   MFG.  CO. 


M  A  XTJ  FA  C  TIT  H  E 

COILS 

OP    ALL    KIXDS 


AMMONIA 
VALVES 

AJTD 

FITTINGS 


REFRIGERATING  AXD  ICE  MAKING  MACHINERY 


Built  in  twenty  different  sizes,  from  1%  to  50  tons.  The 
first  machine  built  in  1894.  Over  500  in  successful  opera- 
tion January  1,  1900.  Catalogue  sent  on  application. 

229-231     SOUTH    WATER     STREET,    CHICAGO 


380 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


Our  Refrigerating  Machinery 

IS  SUBSTANTIALLY  AND  SCIENTIFICALLY 
CONSTRUCTED. 


The  lines  of  our 
compressor  will  be 
found  to  combine 
SYMMETRY  with 
STRENGTH  and 
DURABILITY. 
Ours  is  the  only 
small  machine  of  the 
duplex  type  on  the 
market.     We  do  not 
cater  to  cheapness, 
but  furnish 
an  outfit 
which  has 
STAYING 
QUALITIES 


Write  for 

Catalogue  and 

full 

information. 

Estimates 

promptly 

made. 


CREAMERY  PACKAGE  MFG.  Co, 

1-3-5  WEST  WASHINGTON  STREET, 
CHICAGO,  ILL. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


381 


Remington  Machine  Co 

WILMINGTON,  DELAWARE,  U.S.A. 

BUILDERS   OF 

REFRIGERATING  AND 

ICE  MACHINERYgOB 

BAKER  &  HAMILTON,  Pacific  Coast  Agents, 
San  Francisco,  Cal. 


Vertical  single  acting-  Ammonia  Compressors,  with"  engines  direct 
connected,  and  with  Fly  Wheels  for  belt,  from  %  to  12  tons  refrigerat- 
ing capacity. 

Horizontal  double  acting-  Ammonia  Compressors,  with  Corliss 
engines,  16  to  100  tons  refrigerating  capacity. 

Complete  plants  installed  and  guaranteed. 


ICE  MAKING: 

Can  and  Plate  Systems. 


REFRIGERATING  : 

Direct  Expansion  and  Brine  Systems. 


382  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

Iron,  Copper  and  Brass 

PIPE    COILS 

FOR  ICE  MAKING  AND  REFRIGERATION. 

Bends  and  Manifolds 

for  all  purposes. 


Harrisburg  Pipe  and  Pipe 
Bending  Co. 


HARRISBURQ,    PA. 


Wrought  Iron  Ammonia  Cocks, 

Ammonia  Valves  and  Fittings. 


MANUFACTURERS   OF 


WROUGHT  IRON  PIPE 

FOR    ALL   PURPOSES. 

SPECIAL  QUALITY  REWORKED 
PIPE  FOR  AMMONIA  WORK. 

Carbonic  Acid  Gas  Cylinders,      Ammonia  Bottles  or  Flasks, 
Stills  and  Absorbers  for  Absorption  Machines. 


HARRISBURG   FEED  WATER  HEATERS 

Strictly  high-grade,  made  of  pure  seamless  copper  coils. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


383 


290  BROADWAY, 


NEW    YORK     CITY 


MANUFACTURERS  OF 


ABSOLUTELY   PURE   AND    DRY 
ANHYDROUS  AND  AQUA  26° 


GUARANTEED   FULL  STRENGTH. 

ALL  KINDS  OF 

ROOFING  AND  BUILDING  PAPERS 

Write  to  nearest  branch  for  latest  samples. 


Barrett's  Rope  Insulating  Paper 


WATERPROOF   AND   ODORLESS. 


New  York— 290  Broadway. 
Philadelphia— 1205  Land  Title  Bldg-. 
Chicago— 909  Stock  Exchange  Bldg-. 
St.  Louis— 109  North  9th  St. 
Cleveland — 29  Euclid  Ave. 
Cincinnati— 639  West  Front  St. 


Allegheny— 160  Rebecca  St. 

Columbus,  Ohio. 

Louisville— Clay  and  Franklin  Sts. 

Kansas  City— 1st  and  Campbell  Sts. 

Minneapolis,  Minn. 

New  Orleans — 508  Hennen  Bldg-. 


and  WARREN  EHRET  CO.,  1210  Land  Title  Bldg.,  PHILADELPHIA. 


384 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


\7lTf    ^  A  iv  T  Ice  Making  and 
\   Ul^CAIN  Refrigerating  Machines 


We  carry  in  stock 

Ammonia  Piping, 
Condenser  Coils, 
Ammonia  Fittings, 
Chapman  Valves, 
Mineral  Wool, 
Insulating  Paper. 

REFERENCES: 
10O 

MACHINES  IN 

California, 

Oregon, 

Washington, 

Arizona, 

New  Mexico, 

British  Columbia, 

Mexico, 

Central  Amer.,    i; 

South  America, 

Hawaii,  ~- 

Philippines. 

Pacific  Mail  S.  S.  Co. 
Pacific  Coast  S.  S.  Co 
Oceanic  S.  S.  Co., 
U.  S.  Transports, 


of  an3r  desired  capacity, 

ON   THE    SIMPLEST   AND   MOST   ECONOMICAL   SYSTEM. 


_,,_  SEND  FOR  CATALOGUE. 

VULCAN  IRON  WORKS,  san  Francisco, 


NONPAREIL  CORK 


PATENTED 


PERFECT 
SECTIONAL 
BRINE   PIPE 
COVERING. 


INSULATION 

IN    SHEETS. 


SAMPLES,    CIRCULARS,    ETC. 
GLADLY     FURNISHED. 


THE  NONPAREIL  CORK  MFG.  Co. 


LONDON  OFFICE, 

28  QUEEN   ST. 


90  WEST  BROADWAY, 

NEW    YORK 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  385 

GALVANIZED  STEEL 

ICE  CANS 


OF  EVERY  DESCRIPTION  AND 
ALL  OTHER  WORK  OF  GALVAN- 
IZED IRON  IN  CONNECTION  WITH 


ICE  MANUFACTURING 


ALSO    MANUFACTURERS   OF 

Exhaust  Heads  and  Pipe, 
Portable  Tanks  for 

Storage  of  Oil, 
Filters,  Reboilers,  Skimmers 

and  Storage  Tanks, 
Cornices  and  Skylights, 
Crestings  and  Finials, 
Conductor  Pipe  and  Fittings, 
Have  Troughs, 


MARLIN  &  CO.,  me 

23d  and  Smallman  Streets, 

PITTSBURGH,  Pa.,  U.S.A. 


<25) 


386 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


The  Western  Brewer 

and 

Journal  of  the  Barley,  Malt  and  Hop  Trades 

ILLUSTRATED 


CHICAGO 

177  LASALLE  ST. 


COR.  MONROE 


NEW  YORK 


206  BROADWAY 


COR.  FULTON  ST. 


The  Largest  Paper  in  the  World  devoted  to  the  interests  of  the  Brewer  and 
Maltster,  and  the  Recognized  American  Authority  in  the  Trade 


THE  WESTERN  BREWER 

Has  been  the  most  notable  success  ever  achieved  in  journalism. 

It  is  SUPERBLY  ILLUSTRATED  with  portraits  of  prominent  brewers,  plans  of  new 
breweries,  detailed  drawing's  for  the  construction  of  breweries  and  malt  houses,  and  of  brew- 
ery plants,  engraving's  of  all  new  inventions  in  the  trade,  results  of  microscopical  examina- 
tions, etc.,  etc. 

Its  REPORTS  of  the  BARLEY,  HALT  and  HOP  fl  ARKETS  are  the  most  elaborate  and 
exhaustive  published,  and  its  quotations  are  standard  in  the  trade. 

Its  EDITORIALS  are  original,  carefully  and  ably  written,  and  cover  the  field  of  tech- 
nical research  and  study,  the  temperance  question,  and  all  subjects  of  interest  to  brewers, 
maltsters,  or  those  engaged  in  the  supply  trades. 

Its  BREWERY  NEWS  is  g-athered  from  all  quarters  of  the  world,  and  keeps  the  trade 
constantly  posted  on  current  events  and  happening's.  This  feature  of  THE  WESTERN 
BREWER  is  peculiarly  its  own,  and  no  other  trade  journal  possesses  such  a  complete  organi- 
zation for  news  collecting-. 

THE  WESTERN  BREWER  carries,  besides  its  engravings  and  all  letterpress  matter, 
upwards  of  ONE  HUNDRED  AND  FIFTY  PAGES  OF  ADVERTISEMENTS,  covering  every 
article  of  manufacture  entering  into  the  brewery  economy.  Its  advertising  pages  are  a 
complete  directory  of  the  trade. 


Subscription  $5.00  a  Year  in  Advance 

which  includes  a  copy  of  the  Brewers'  Hand-Book  of  the  U.  S.  and  Canada, 
and  all  the  Illustrated  Supplements 


H.  S.  RICH  &  CO.,  Publishers 


Address  either  the  New  York  or  Chicago  Office  as  above. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


387 


The  I  Jnion  BOILER  TUBE 
me  union  CLEANER  co 


272   PENN  AVE.,  PITTSBURGH,  PA.,  U.S.A. 


HAS  set  the  acknowledged  standard  for  the  world  for  removing—  by  POWER  driven 
MECHANICAL  devices—  all  conditions  of  scale  from  all  makes  of  Water  Tube 
boilers,  whether  horizontally  inclined,  such  as  the  Babcock  &  Wilcox  type,  or  vertical 
straight  tubes,  such  as  the  Cahall  type,  or  those  having-  single  or  double  curved 
tubes,  such  as  the  Climax,  Stirling,  Thornycroft  or  Firmenich  types.    We  sell  or  lease  our 
device,  which  Is  more  in  the  nature  of  a  royalty  rather  than  the  sale  of  machinery,  or  clean 


boilers  by  contract  at  a  fixed  price  per  tube.  After  nearly-  five  years  of  phenomenal  success 
in  an  unique  and  exclusive  industry  in  cleaning  boilers  all  over  the  United  States,  in  Eng- 
land and  Scotland,  we  offer  the  results  of  our  experience  to  those  we  have  not  been  able  so  far 
to  reach.  Will  be  pleased  to  furnish  free  descriptive  illustrated  circulars  with  reference  list 
comprising  the  largest  firms  in  the  United  States,  England  and  Scotland,  copies  of  tests, 
and  other  particulars. 

'We  call  attention  to  page  205  of  this  book. 


WE  HAVE  THE  ONLY  FLEXIBLE  SHAFT 

of  remarkable  strength  and  phenomenal  durability  under  great 
stress,  which  we  were  compelled  to  design,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  other  makes  required  more  time  to  keep  them  in  repair  than 
it  did  to  do  our  part  of  the  work — that  of  cleaning  Curved 
Tube  Boilers.  • 


388  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION, 


Founded  by  the  late  Thomas  Sutcliffe  Mort,  A.  D.  1861. 
Incorporated  under  the  Acts  of  New  South  Wales,  1874. 


N.S.W.  FRESH  FOOD  &  ICE  Co.  Ltd 

SYDNEY,  N.  S.W.,  AUSTRALIA. 


LARGEST  AND  MOST  COMPLETE  FREEZING  ESTABLISH 
MENT  IN  THE  SOUTHERN  HEMISPHERE. 

Mutton  and  Beef  Freezing  for  Export.     Ice  Making. 
Makers  and  Exporters  of  Pasteurized  and  Creamery  Butter. 
Wholesale  and  Retail  Purveyors  of  MILK,  ICE,  FISH, 

BUTTER  and  ALL  PERISHABLE  FOOD  PRODUCTS. 


Depots,  92  and  135  King-  street;  23  Royal  Arcade.  Branches  at  Summer  Hill  and  North 
Sydney;  also  at  Fremantle,  W.  A.  Central  Butter  Factory  at  Grafton.  Creameries  on  the 
Clarence  River,  and  Illawarra  District. 

Head  Office  and  Works:    25  Harbour  Street,  SYDNEY. 

H.   PATESON,  Manager. 


FOUNDED  BY  THE  LATE  THOMAS  S.  MORT,  A.  D.  1854. 


Mort's  Dock  &  Engineering  Co.,   Ltd. 

BALMAIN,  NEW  SOUTH  WALES. 


Engineers,  Ship  Builders  and  Machinists. 

Have  Four  Dry  Docks  and  Three  Patent  Slips, 
Docking  Vessels  up  to  10,000  Tons  Burden, 
With  the  Most  Extensive  Engineering  Works 

IN  AUSTRALIA. 

THEY   ARE   MANUFACTURERS   OF 

Refrigerating  Plants  for  Land  and  Shipboard. 

ALSO   BUILDERS   OF    MACHINERY   FOR 

WATERWORKS,  MINING,  LOCOMOTION, 

CRANES  AND  LIFTS,  ELECTRIC  LIGHTING, 

QUARTZ  CRUSHING,  GOLD  DREDGING. 

J.  P.  FRANKl,  General  Manager. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


389 


NORMAN  SELFE 

MEMBER  INSTITUTE  CIVIL  ENGINEERS. 
ENGLAND.  MEMBER  INSTITUTE  MECHAN- 
ICAL ENGINEERS,  ENGLAND.  ASSOCIATE 

AUSTRALIAN  INSTITUTE  PATENT  AGENTS, 
ETC.,  ETC.,  ETC.  :::::::::: 


CONSULTING  ENGINEER 

SYDNEY,  AUSTRALIA 

MR.  SELFE  has  the  oldest  established  business  in  the  Australian 
colonies  as  a  Consulting-  Engineer,  Mechanical  and  Patent  Expert 
and  Arbitrator  in  Technical  matters.  He  will  be  happy  to  be  of  service 
to  home,  American  or  foreign  friends  in  connection  with  the  Refrig-erating, 
Hydraulic,  Pneumatic  and  Electrical  branches  of  Engineering',  or  the 
design  and  construction  of  Machine^'  to  meet  Australian  requirements. 


s 


AULS'  PATENT  AUTOMATIC 
ICE  CAN  FILLER 

We  present  this  filler  to  you  in  its  improved  form,  and 
we  have  a  filler  that  is  not  theoretical  in  any  way,  but  is 
built  for  hard  use  and  will  stand  the  tankman's  thump- 
ing", and  at  the  same  time  be  accurate  and  thoroughly 
reliable.  It  will  save  one  man's  work  on  a  large  machine, 
and  makes  all  blocks  of  ice  weigh  exactly  alike;  prevents 
waste  of  distilled  water  and  weakening-  of  brine;  is  ad- 
justable, and  made  of  the  best  material;  threads  are 
standard  and  repairs  are  easy.  You  will  not  regret  fit- 
ting out  your  factory  with  these  fillers,  and  we  guaran- 
tee satisfaction.  All  the  best  factories  and  manufacturers 
of  ice  machinery  use  them.  We  have  made  them  since 
1889,  so  you  see  it  is  no  experiment.  We  solicit  your 
order;  have  a  large  stock,  and  can  ship  "at  once." 

SAULS    BROTHERS, 

MANUFACTURERS 

PATTERNS,    CASTINGS,    MODELS,    DRAWINGS   AND 
LIGHT  MACHINE  WORK. 


COLUMBUS, 


GEORGIA. 


390  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

THIRD  EDITION 

Revised  and 
Enlarged 

Compend  of 
Mechanical 

Refrigeration 


A  Book  of 

over 

400  pages 


By 

PROF.  J.  E.  SIEBEL 

DIRECTOR   ZYMOTECHNIC    INSTITUTE,    CHICAGO 


'T'HIS  work  presents,  in  a  convenient  form,  the  rules,  tables, 
•*•  formulae  and  directions  which  are  needed  by  refrigerating" 
machinery  engineers,  ice  manufacturers,  cald  storage  men,  brewers, 
meat  freezing-  establishments,  packers,  contractors  and  all  others 
interested  in  the  practical  application  of  refrigeration.  It  is,  in 
fact,  designed  to  give  ready  and  plain  answers  to  most  of  such  ques- 
tions as  are  daily  occurring  in  any  one  of  the  different  branches  of 
practical  refrigeration. 

The  most  popular  book  yet  written  on 
Mechanical  Refrigeration. 

PRICE 

Bound  in    Cloth $3.00 

Bound  in  Morocco 3.50 

Sent  prepaid  to  any  address  on 
receipt  of  price. 

H.  5.  RICH    &   CO...Publishers 

177  LA  SALLE  STREET,  CHICAGO 

206  BROADWAY,  NEW  YORK 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  391 

COVERINGS    KOR 

Ammonia,  Brine,  Cold  Water  and  Steam  Pipes 

SURE   AND   POSITIVE  INSULATION. 
FURNISHED  AND  APPLIED  IN  ANY  PART  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

H.  W.  JOHNS  M'FQ  CO., 

ioo  WILLIAM  ST.,  NEW  YORK 


SEND  FOR   PRICKS 

AND   PARTICULARS. 


COLD  STORAGE 


Sectional    and     Combination 


COVERINGS 


INS  L7L  A  ±1 0  TV. . .         for  Brine,  Ammonia,  Water 

and  Steam  Pipes. 
SPECIAL,  SECTIONAL  AND  SHEET  MATERIALS, 

For  Pipes,  Tanks,  Walls,  Floors,  Refrigerator  Cars,  etc. 


T-J  AID    T7T7T  T'Q     WATERPROOF  SHEATHING  PAPERS, 
ll..r\.iIV   ^  m^  i  O     PAINTS  AND  CEMENTS, 

Asbestos  Materials,  Roofings,  Coatings  and  Coverings. 

R.  M.  GILMOUR  COMPANY,  84  John  Street,  NEW  YORK. 

CABOT'S  INSULATING-  QUILT 


A  cushion  of  dead-air  spaces, 

absolutely  preventing  conduction  by 
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"An  A  No.  1  insulating  medium.'"—  Syracuse  C.  S.  it  Warehouse  Co. 
"  The  best  insulating  medium  in  use." — Express  Refrigerator  Car  Co. 

SOLE  MANUFACTURER  .     Samples  and  full  details  sent  on  request. 

SAMUEL,    CABOT,    TO    KILBY  STREET,  BOSTOX,  MAS  S 


FOR  COLD      ATT  IV  T 

S.T°RAGE   M    [\ 


CHEAP 
AND 
AND  -..  ^  EASILY 

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INSULATION  \  A/ 1      If      1 

USE  \\  \^J  \^J   I  j        SAMPLES  FREE 

United  States  Mineral  Wool  Co. 

2     COURTLANDT    STREET  NEW    YORK 


392  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

INDICATING 

THE    REFRIGERATING 

MACHINE 

fjt 

THE  APPLICATION  OF  THE  INDICATOR  TO  THE 
AMMONIA  COMPRESSOR  AND  STEAM  ENGINE, 
WITH  PRACTICAL  INSTRUCTIONS  RELATING  TO 
THE  CONSTRUCTION  AND  USE  OF  THE  INDI- 
CATOR AND  READING  AND  COMPUTING  INDI- 
CATOR CARDS. 

BY...GARDNER    T.  VOORHEES 


THIS  book  gives  simple,  practical   tables    for  applying-  the  true 
compression  curve  to  the  indicator  card.     So  simple  are  these 
tables    that    any  man    competent    to    run    a    compressor   can 
use  them.   It  is  as  important  for  the  owner  of  a  compression  machine 
to  have  these  tables  as  it  is  to  know  whether  he   has  a  hole  in  his 
money  pocket. 

Full  instruction  for  attaching-  the  indicating-  apparatus,  with 
numerous  cuts  of  indicator  cards,  showing-  and  explaining-  faulty 
running-  of  the  compressor.  Also  full  descriptions,  with  cuts,  of  the 
standard  makes  of  indicators,  planimeters,  reducing-  motions,  etc., 
etc.;  together  with  a  practical  treatise  on  the  action  of  the  compres- 
sor; with  a  full  appendix  of  ammonia  tables,  etc.,  etc.,  and  all  data 
necessary  to  work  up  indicator  cards  from  the  ammonia  compressor 
or  steam  engine. 

J   Bound  in  Cloth    .....    $1.00 
MofOCCO    .    .    .    .      J.5Q 


Sent  prepaid  to  any  address  on  receipt  of  price. 


H.  S.  RICH  &  CO.,  PUBLISHERS 

177   LA  SAL.LE    STREET,   CHICAGO 
206  BROADWAY,  NEW  YORK 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


393 


SAMUEL,    H.    BRUBAKER    &    CO. 
COLD    STORAQE    ARCHITECTS  A^D    ENGINEERS 


AUTOMATIC 


ICE  CAN  FILLERS 


Are 

necessary 
adjuncts 
lo  all 

Ice  Factories 
using  the 
(Can"  System 
of  Freezing. 


Burns'  Can  Fillers 
will  put  the  water 
up  to  the  proper 
heig-ht  in  every  can, 
ever\'  time,  keep  on 
doing-  it,  and  are  so 
g-uaranteed. 

MANUFACTURED 
SOLELY   BY 


JAS.  F.  BURNS 

(Can  Filler  Maker 
to  the  Ice  Baron) 

811-813-815  Fair-mount  Ave. 
PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 

Correspondence  Solicited. 


WEST  POINT... 
W    BOILER  WORKS 

MANUFACTURERS   OF 

STEAM 

BOILERS, 

STEEL 

SMOKE 

STACKS, 

FREEZING 

TANKS  and 

BRINE 

TANKS 

For 

Modern 
Ice 
Plants 

R.  MUNROE  &  SON, 

23d  St.,  PITTSBURG,  PA. 


394 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


^^^^MM^ 

pictures  tell  more  than  ttfords 

WE  MAKE  FINE  ILLUSTRATIONS  FOR  ALL  PURP05ES 
CONSULT  U5  ABOUT  YOUR  NEXT  AD.  OR  CATALOGUE. 

3tlinots 

346-356  DEARPORN  ST.  CHICAGO. 
NOTE  THE  CUTS  IN  THIS  BOOK 

MADE  BY  US  FOR 

FRED  W.  WOLF  CO.  PEMN.  IRON  WKS.CO.  HERCULES 
ICE  MCH.  CO.  THE  ICE  &  COLD  CO.  OF  ST.  LOUIS. 
SAML.H.BRUBAKER.  CEO.  CHALLONERS  SONS  CO. 
MEW  SOUTH  WALES  FRESH  FOOD  &  ICE  CO. 
THE  BUFFALO  REFRIC.  MCH.  CO.  AMD  OTHERS. 


PHONE 
HARRISON" 


CLYDE     WELDED    CONTINUOUS     COILS     A    SPECIALTY 


THE  CLYDE 

ENGINEERING 
COMPANY  LJ? 


Cranville  and   Sydney,   N.S.W 


REFRIGERATING  ENGINE  IRS 


MAKERS   OF 

LINDE,  AULDJO.ANTARCTI 


LYDE,  AND  OTHER  TYPES 
OF  MACHINES. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


395 


HIGH-CLASS 

CATALOGUES  AND    PAMPHLETS 
A  SPECIALTY 


TELEPHONE   MAIN  157O 


PRINTERS  AND  STATIONERS 


BLANK  BOOK   MANUFACTURERS 

337  AND  339  DEARBORN  ST. 

74  AND  76  PL.TMOUTH  CT. 

PKIXTERS    OF    THIS    WORK. 


CHICAGO, 


The  Ideal 

Refrigerating  &  Mfg.  Co* 

SHEFFIELD  and  NORTH  AVES., 
CHICAGO. 


Builders  of 

SMALL 
MACHINES 
EXCLUSIVELY 

One-half  to  Ten  Ton 
Refrigerating  Capacity 


OUR  TOGGLE 
MOVEMENT, 


396  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

TO  OBTAIN  THE  BEST 

BUY  YOUR 

AMMONIA,  STEAM,  GAS  OR 
WATER  PACKING 


OF 


THE    GARLOCK    PACKING   CO 

PALMYRA,  N.  Y. 


NEW  YORK  CITY,       BOSTON,  CHICAGO,  ROME,  CA.  , 

PHILADELPHIA,        SAN  FRANCISCO,       DENVER,  CLEVELAND, 

ST.  LOUIS,  PITTSBURGH. 


JAMES  SPIERS,  JR. 

NO.    15    FIRST    ST.,      SAN    FRANCISCO,    CAL. 


AGENT   FOR   THE 


ANTARCTIC 

REFRIGERATING    MACHINERY 


MR.  SPIERS  is  prepared  to  dispose  of  the  Patent 
Rights  in  the  United  States  connected  with  the  Ant- 
arctic Machines,  or  to  furnish  working  drawings  and 
issue  licenses  to  REFRIGERATING  MACHINE 
BUILDERS,  covering  the  whole  or  any  part  of  the 
improvements  secured  by  the  patents.  :::::: 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION.  397 


ARCTIC 

MACHINES     INSTALLED    IN     1879 
STILL  IN    CONTINUOUS  SERVICE 


COMPLETE   ICE  MAKINGand 
REFRIGERATING  PLANTS 

OF  ANY    SIZE. 

Pipe. ..Fittings  Ammonia 

Cans. ..Tanks  Supplies 


STYLE  B. 

Correspondence  Solicited. 
Send  for  Catalogue. 


THE  ARCTIC  MACHINE  CO, 

CLEVELAND,  OHIO,  U.S.A. 


398  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

"CHALLONER" 

IMPROVED  SINGLE  ACTING  COMPRESSOR. 

For  strength  and  durability,  simplicity  in  construction  and 
operation  they  have  no  equal. 


FOR  SECTIONAL  VIEWS  AND  DESCRIPTION  SEE   PAGES  311  TO  314. 

EITHER  BELT  DRIVE  OR  DIRECT 
CONNECTED   TO   STEAM    ENGINE. 

OUR  SPECIALTIES :    From  J  to  30  tons  Refrigerating  Capacity 

For  Ice  Factories,  Breweries,  Cold  Storage  Warehouses, 
Candy  Factories,  Restaurants,  Hotels,  Creameries,  etc. 


GEO.  CHALLQNER'S  SONS  CO, 


We  solicit  your  correspondence 

and  will  cheerfully  furnish  estimates. 


OSHKOSH,  WIS. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


399 


"  Neponset  "  Insulating  Paper 

From  the  first  this  has  been  the  standard 
among-  the  leading-  Cold  Storage  experts,  for 
best  insulation  work  here  and  abroad. 

"Laminoid"  Insulating  Paper 

Of  all  insulating-  papers  yet  made,  this  one 
stands  the  highest  on  tests  for  transmission 
and  absorption  of  moisture. 

A  POSTAL  F.  W.  BIRD  &  SON, 

BRINGS  SAMPLES.  PAPER  MAKERS. 


Western  Office: 

1434  Monadnock  Bldg., 
Chicago,  111. 


Eastern  Office  and  Mills: 
East  Walpole, 
Mass. 


CENTRIFUGAL, 

PUMPS 


Made  of  brass,  or  iron  with 
brass  working  parts,  for  cir- 
culating purposes  in  con- 
nection with  Refrigerating 
Plants  and  Ice  Making  Ma- 
chinery. Directly  connected 
pumps  and  engines,  com- 
pact and  substantial  :  :  :  :  : 

MORRIS 

MACHINE  WORKS 

BALDWINSVILLE,    N.  Y. 
New  York  Office,  39-41  Cortlandt  St. 

HENION  &  HUBBELL 

AGENTS 

61  North  Jefferson  St.,  Chicago,  III. 


IMPROVED 

Robertson-Thompson 

INDICATOR. 

FEED  WATER 

HEATERS, 

HTC. 


FOOD 
FOR  THOUGHT 

An  INDICATOR  will  at  all  times  tell  you 
if  your  engine  is  working-  economically.  An 
ELIMINATOR  either  on  the  steam  line  to 
separate  water  or  exhaust  line  to  extract  oil, 
is  as  g-ood  as  an  insurance  policy.  There  are 
none  better  than  ours,  and  the  prices  are 
very  low.  _ 

JAS.  L.  ROBERTSON  &  5ONS 

NEW  YORK.    BOSTON.    PHILADELPHIA. 


HINE 
ELIMINATOR. 


REDUCING  WHEELS. 
PLANIMETERS. 


400 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


WE  HAVE  THE  LARGEST 

AND  BEST  EQUIPPED  FACTORY  IN  THE  UNITED 

STATES  FOR  THE  MANUFACTURE 

OF  GALVANIZED  IRON 

WORK. 


T 


TsJ 
X 


Brine  Tanks 
Exhaust  Steam 
Filters, 

Water  Filters, 
Reboilers, 
Cooling  Tanks, 
Tanks  and  Vats. 


And  all  Sheet  Iron  Work  required  in  Ice  Factories, 
Breweries  and  Cold  Storages. 


WM.  B.  SCAIFE  &  SONS 

ESTABLISHED  1802. 

Office:    221   FIRST  AVENUE, 


Pittsburgh,  Pa. 


MACHINERY   FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


401 


WESTERLIN  &  CAMPBELL 

CHICAGO,  ILL. 


CONSULTING  ENGINEERS 
AND  CONTRACTORS  FOR 

Ice  Making  and  Refrigerating  Machinery 


PATENTEES  AND   MANUFACTURERS   OF  THE 

IMPROVED  WESTERLIN  &  CAMPBELL 

DOUBLE  PIPE 


AMMONIA  CONDENSERS 

BRINE   COOLERS,   BEER  COOLERS 
DISTILLED  WATER   COOLING   COILS,  ETC. 


SEND    FOR    CIRCULARS 

We  own  the  patents  in  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  for  these  Condensers  and 
Coolers.    Patents  pending-  in  other  countries. 

(26) 


402  MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 

Practical  Ice  Making 

and 

Refrigerating 


A  practical,  common  sense  treatise  on  the  construction  and  operation  of 
Ice  Making'  and  Refrigerating'  Machinery  and  Apparatus 

BY 

EUGENE   T.  SKINKLE 

"THE  BOY" 


Every  branch  of  ice  making"  and  refrigerating1  is  handled 
with  a  view  to  setting  out  the  best  and  most  economical 
practice  in  the  construction  and  operation  of  the  plant.  The 
benefit  of  years  of  experience  in  the  construction  of  ice 
making  and  refrigerating  plants  and  the  erection  of  their 
machinery,  as  well  as  study  of  their  operation  from  the 
practical  side,  is  given  to  the  trade  in  plain  language,  free 
from  technicalities,  and  will  be  found  of  great  practical  value 
to  owners  and  operators  alike,  and  of  exceptional  value  to 
those  about  to  erect  new  plants  or  to  rearrange  or  overhaul 
old  establishments. 

^  Bound  in  Cloth,  ....        $1.50 

c  "/  Bound  in  Morocco,       ....  2.00 

SENT  PREPAID  TO  ANY  ADDRESS  ON  RECEIPT  OF  PRICE. 


H.S.  RICH  &CO. 

PUBLISHERS 

177  La  Salle  St.,  Chicago  206  Broadway,  New  York 


MACHINERY   FOR   REFRIGERATION. 


403 


:    GEO.  J.  STOCKER 

MANUFACTURER  OF 

COOLING  TOWERS 


(PATKXT,  JOHN  STOCKER.) 


Apparatus 
for  the 
Re-Cooling 
of  Ammonia 
and  Steam 
Condenser 
Water. 


Saves 

from 

90  to  95 
per  cent 

of  the  water 
required  for 
Condensing  and 
Cooling 
Purposes. 


Owing  to  the  superior  construction  of  the  cooling:  surfaces  (about  40  per  cent  larger 
than  with  the  Gradirworks,  patent  Klein)  and  the  most  perfect  methods  of  distributing 
the  water,  the  efficiency  of  this  Cooling  Tower  is  greater  than  with  any  other  in  the 
market,  and  the  temperatures  obtained  considerably  lower.  References  from  leading 
firms  all  over  the  United  States. 

Information  and  estimates,  etc.,  cheerfully  furnished. 


2831  Victor  Street, 


St.  Louis,  Mo. 


404 


MACHINERY   FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


The  Recognized  Authority 


In  all  matters  pertaining  to 


Mechanical 
Refrigeration 


A  MONTHLY  REVIEW 

OF  THE  ICE, 

ICE  MAKING, 

REFRIGERATING, 

COLD  STORAGE  AND 

KINDRED 

TRADES. 

'P'HE  oldest  publication  of 
its  kind  in  the  world,  and 
the  only  medium  through 
which  can  be  obtained  all 
the  reliable  technical  and 
practical  information  relat- 
ing- to  the  science  of  mechan- 
ical ice  making  and  refriger- 
ation. ICE  AND  REFRIGERA- 
TION is  invaluable  to  any 
one  owning,  operating,  or  in 
any  way  interested  in  ice 
making  or  refrigerating  ma- 
chinery. 

It  has  won  the  confidence  of  all  classes  of  the  trade  throughout 
the  world  by  its  absolute  independence  and  impartiality.  It  aims, 
to  be  a  thoroughly  representative  paper,  catering  to  no  particular 
class,  but  striving  to  become  indispensable  to  all.  It  is  not  shackled 
by  any  pet  theories,  and  no  man  or  class  of  men  has  any  private  pull 
with  it.  Its  columns  are  open  to  the  entire  trade:  to  any  one  who  has 
anything  of  interest  or  value  to  say. 


SUBSCRIPTION  PRICE. 

In  United  States,  Canada  and  Mexico,     . 

In  all  other  countries, 

Payable  in  Advance. 

Remit  by  postoffice  or  express  money  orders,  or  by  bank  draft 
on  Chicago  or  New  York. 


$2.00  per  year. 
3.00  per  year. 


H.  S.  RICH  &  CO.,  Publishers 


NEW  YORK:  206  Broadway 

Corner  Fulton 


CHICAGO:    J77  La  Salle  Street 

Corner  Monroe 


MACHINERY   FOR  REFRIGERATION.  405 

Ice  and  Refrigeration 

(ILLUSTRATED) 
A  Monthly  Review  of  the  Ice,  Ice  Making-,  Refrigerating,  Cold  Storage  and  Kindred  Trades 


OFFICIAL  ORGAN  OF  THE  SOUTHERN  ICE  EXCHANGE,  THE  NORTHERN  ICE  MANUFACTURERS' 
ASSOCIATION,  THE  SOUTHWESTERN  ICE  MANUFACTURERS'  ASSOCIATION,  THE  INDIANA 
ICE  MANUFACTURERS'  ASSOCIATION,  THE  FLORIDA  ICE  MANUFACTURERS'  AS- 
SOCIATION, THE  TRI-STATE  ICE  MANUFACTURERS'  ASSOCIATION, 
THE  WESTERN  ICE  MANUFACTURERS'  ASSOCIATION,  AND 
ILLINOIS  ICE  MANUFACTURERS'  ASSOCIATION. 


It  gives  the  earliest  reliable  information  of  improvements  in  machinery  and  appliances 
for  handling  or  making  ice  or  for  producing  cold. 

The  department  of  "Answers  to  Correspondents"  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  features, 
and  is  open  to  every  subscriber  for  the  presentation  of  the  problems  encountered  in  daily 
practice  of  making  ice  or  operating  cold  storage  or  other  refrigerating  plants,  or  for  the  elu- 
cidation of  scientific  and  theoretical  questions.  Every  legitimate  inquiry  is  fully  answered 
by  experts;  we  have  personal  knowledge  of  scores  of  cases  where  the  use  of  this  department 
by  subscribers  has  been  the  direct  means  of  saving  them  large  sums  of  mone3r,  as  well  as 
of  enabling  them  to  save  still  more  by  its  suggestions  of  better  methods  for  constructing 
plants  and  operating  their  machinery,  based  on  scientific  investigation  as  well  as  practical 
experience. 

You  cannot  Afford  to  Be  without  It. 


SUBSCRIPTION  PRICE. 

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IN  ALL  OTHER  COUNTRIES,  ....  3.0O  PER  YEAR 

PAYABLE  IN  ADVANCE. 


H.  S.  Rich  &  Co. 

PUBLISHERS 

206  Broadway,  New  York         177  LaSalle  St.,  Chicago 


406 


MACHINERY   FOR  REFRIGERATION, 


ICE  MAKING  AND 

REFRIGERATING 

MACHINES 


LOWEST  FUEL  CONSUMPTION. 


SURPASSES   ALL    FOR 


STABILITY,  DURABILITY  AND   ECONOMY. 


Write  for  Circulars  and  List  of  Customers. 


C.  A.  MAcDONALD, 

MONADNOCK    BLOCK, 
CHICAGO,  ILL. 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


407 


THE  BALL  MACHINE 

500  TOXS 


FOR  LAHGE  INSTALLATIONS. 


THE  BEST  DESIGNED, 

MOST  ECONOMICAL  AND  GENERALLY 

SATISFACTORY  MACHINE  ON 

THE  MARKET. 


FRICTION 
LOAD 

6/0  % 


ICE  &  COLD  MACHINE  Co 


ST.  LOUIS,  MO.,  U.S.A. 


408 


MACHINERY  FOR   REFRIGERATION. 


Wrought 

...Iron  Pipe 


COILS 

OF  EVERY   DESCRIPTION. 


BENDS   AND 
MANIFOLDS 


FOR 


si- 


and 
Refrigerating 
Machinery 


Whitlock  Coil  Pipe 
Company 


The 


Cable  and  Telegraph 
Address 


MAIN  OFFICE  AND  WORKS 


..WHITLOCK?'  HA™     ELMWOOD,  CONN, 


Director}'  Code 


U.  S.  A. 


Iron,  Brass  and  Copper 

COILS 


OF   ALL   KINDS  FOR 
HEATING  AND 
COOLING. 


efe 


MACHINERY   FOR   REFRIGERATION. 


409 


LINDE 


REFRIGERATING    AND 
=ICE    MACHINES 


OVER    4,100     MACHINES    SOLD. 


Improved  Air=Cooling  Apparatus  Refrigerating  and  Freezing  Machines 

For  Meat  Freezing  and  Chilling  Establish-  f  or  a11  purposes, 

ments.  and  for  Cold  Stores,  giving  a  per-  Ice  Making  Machines 

feet  circulation  of   cold  dry  air  at  any  For  the  economical  production  of  white, 

temperature.  clear  or  crystal  ice  in  blocks  of  any  size. 

Pure  Anhydrous  Liquid  Ammonia  and  Chloride  of  Calcium  in  Stock. 

THE  LINDE  AUSTRALIAN  REFRIGERATION  CO. 

Offices— 11   A.  M.  P.  Buildings,  BRISBANE.        97  Pitt  St.,  SYDNEY,  AUSTRALIA. 

The  Brewers  Hand-Book 

THE  ORIGINAL  DIRECTORY 
OF  THE  BREWING  AND  MALTING  TRADES. 


THE  BOOK 
GIVES 


Published  Annually. 

A  complete  list  of  all  Brewers  in  the  United  States. 

A  complete  list  of  all  Brewers  in  Canada. 

A  complete  list  of  all  Brewers  in  Mexico. 

A  complete  list  of  all  Brewers  in  Central  America. 

A  complete  list  of  all  Brewers  in  South   America. 

A  complete  list  of  all  Brewers  in  the  West  Indies. 

A  complete  list  of  all  Brewers  in  Australasia. 

A  complete  list  of  all  Brewers  in  India. 

A  complete  list  of  all  Brewers  in  China. 

A  complete  list  of  all  Brewers  in  Japan. 

A  complete  li.st  of  all  Brewers  in  Africa. 

A  complete  list  of  Brewmasters  in  the  United  States. 

A  complete  list  of  Brewmasters  in  Canada. 

A  complete  list  of  all  Maltsters  in  the  United  States. 

A  complete  list  of  all  Maltsters  in  Canada. 

A  complete  list  of  all  Maltsters  in  Australasia. 

A  complete  list  of  all  Grain  Distillers  in  the  United  States. 

A  complete  list  of  all  Grain  Distillers  in  Canada. 

All  Brewers  that  Bottle  are  designated.          All  Brewers  that  make  Malt  are  designated. 
The  kind  or  kinds  of  Malt  Liquors  brewed  by  each  Brewer  is  shown. 
Also  a  vast  amount  of  miscellaneous  trade  information. 

PRICE,   85.00  A.  YEAR. 

H.  S.  RICH  &  CO.,  Publishers, 

177  LA  SALLE  ST.,  206  BROADWAY, 

CHICAGO,  ILL.,  U.  S.  A.  NEW  YORK,  U.  S.  A. 


410 


MACHINERY   FOR  REFRIGERATION, 


York  Manufacturing  Co 


YORK,  PA. 


DESIGN  OF  OUR   MEDIUM   SIZE  MACHINE. 


Manufacturers  of 


ICE  MAKING  AND 
REFRIGERATING  MACHINERY 

ALSO  ENGINES  AND  BOILERS. 


400   TON   REFRIGERATING    MACHINE. 
TWO   SINGLE-ACTING   AMMONIA    COMPRESSORS. 

30"  DIAMETER    BY    48"    STROKE. 

CROSS   COMPOUND   CONDENSING   STEAM    ENGINE. 
HIGH  PRESSURE    CYLINDER    30"  X  48" — LOW    PRESSURE    CYLINDER    58"  X  48" 


MACHINERY   FOR   REFRIGERATION.  411 

WE  ARE  PREPARED  TO  FURNISH 

TO  THE  TRADE  ANY 

APPARATUS  OR  FITTINGS 

USED  IN  MACHINERY  FOR  THE 

MANUFACTURE  OF  ICE 
QR  FOR  REFRIGERATING  PURPOSES 


PARTIAL    VIEW    OF    OUR    WORKS. 


Our  Works  are  Conceded  to  be  the  Most  Modern  in  Existence 


XT!        h  Our  Own  Foundries 

ANY  KIND  OF 

AMMONIA  FITTINGS  AND  CASTINGS 


MADE  OF 


Charcoal  Iron,  Malleable  Iron,  Gun  Metal  or  Semi-Steel. 


YORK  MANUFACTURING  Co 

YORK,    PA. 

CAPITAL,        :         :         :        Sl,OOO,OOO. 


412 


MACHINERY   FOR   REFRIGERATION. 


PENNEY'S  TWIN  CONNECTED  ICE  MACHINE  WITH  CORLISS  ENGINE. 

EDGAK  PKNNEY,  President  and  Manager.  ROBERT  WHITEHILL,  Sec.  and  Treas. 

A.  B.  WHITNEY,  Vice-President.        GEORGE  B.  SALISBURY,  Auditor. 

Newburgh  Ice  Machine  and  Engine  Co* 

ICE  MAKING  AND  REFRIGERATING  MACHINERY 

Using  Ammonia  or  Sulphurous  Oxide. 

Corliss  Steam  Engines,  Simple  or  Compound,  for  any  duty. 

Steam  Boilers  and  Steam  Power  Equipments. 
Iron  and  Brass  Casting's. 

Address.  NEWBURGH,  N.  Y. 


PENNEY'S  TANDEM  HORIZONTAL,  DOUBLE 
ACTING,  CENTER  CRANK  COMPRESSOR, 
CORLISS  STYLE. 


MACHINERY   FOR   REFRIGERATION. 

STEVENSON'S  DOORS 
FOR   COLD    STORAGE  AND    AIR-TIGHT   STORAGE. 


SMOKE-TIGHT  FIREPROOF  DOORS. 

These  doors  have  won  for  themselves  a  reputation  as  the  highest 
standard.  All  the  finest  Cold  Storages  in  the  United  States  are  fitted  up 
with  them.  They  are  made  of  the  best  of  everything  used,  and  their 
appearance  is  neat  and  elegant. 

They  include  our  hardware  and  our  Adjustable  Flexible  door  frame, 
all  fitted  up  complete  and  adjusted,  ready  to  push  in  place,  screw  fast 

and  use.  Where  truck- 
ing is  done  they  have 
our  improved  beveled 
threshold,  avoiding 
faulty  sealing,  binding 
on  floor,  and  constant 
sweeping  up,  jolting, 
splinters,  etc. 

For  cement  or  as- 
phalt floors,  the  lower 
ends  of  frame  are  con- 
nected by  angle  irons- 
bedded  in  the  floor  be- 
low the  surface. 

For  overhead  track 
they  have  a  tight  fitting 
trap,  opened  and  closed  by  our  new,  positive  acting  cam  device.      No- 
Cord  Pulley  or  spring  hinge,  and  are  all  complete  in  one  structure. 
Freezer  doors.      Metal  covered,  smoke-tight,  fireproof  doors. 
Combined  self  closing  door  and  chute  to  pass  ice  in  or  out  of  stor- 
age.     Nothing  perishable  about  it.      No  rush  of  air.      No  trouble  with 
careless  help.    Will  count  the  passing  blocks. 

Full  information,  illustrations,  diagrams,  order  forms  and  long  lists 
of  patrons  in  all  lines  of  business,  in  our  circulars. 


414 


MACHINERY   FOR   REFRIGERATION. 


MACHINERY   FOR   REFRIGERATION. 


415 


FIFTEEN    TO    TWO    HUNDRED   TON 
ICE    MAKING. 


416 


MACHINERY  FOR  REFRIGERATION. 


PURE  SULPHATE  MADE 


Anhydrous 


ABSOLUTELY 
DRY. 


PURE 

SULPHATE 

MADE 


26°  Aqua 


SPECIALLY    PURIFIED   FOR   USE   IN 

ICE  AND  REFRIGERATING 
MACHINES 


MANUFACTURED    BY 


^  prerichs  (Chemical 

ST.  LOUIS,  U.  S.  A. 


TheVilter  Manufacturing  Co. 

860-870  CLINTON  ST., 
MILWAUKEE,  WIS.,  U.S.A. 


BUILDERS  OF  IMPROVED  HORIZONTAL,  DOUBLE- 
ACTING  COMPRESSION 


REFRIGERATINGCtlCE  MAKING 
MACHINERY 


DOUBLE-ACTING  AMMONIA  COMPRESSOR,  DRIVEN  BY 
"VILTER"  CORLISS  ENGINE. 


For  "DIRECT  EXPANSION"  or  "BRINE  CIRCU- 
LATION" SYSTEMS. 


COMPLETE  LINE  OF  AMMONIA  FITTINGS. 


CORLISS  ENGINES, 


A  , 

OVERDUE. 


nd 


AMMONIA 


Pennsylvania  Iron  Works  Co* 


Refrigerating  Machinery 


SEND  FOR  ILLUSTRATED  DESCRIPTIVE  CATALOGUE, 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 
BERKELEY 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 

Books  not  returned  on  time  are  subject  to  a  fine  of 
50c  per  volume  after  the  third  day  overdue,  increasing 
to  $1.00  per  volume  after  the  sixth  day.  Books  not  in 
demand  may  be  renewed  if  application  is  made  before 
expiration  of  loan  period. 


DEC  2.  URI 


NOV19    1« 


SEP 

3EC    6   I 


ICAL   ENGINE. 


ia, 

Pa."' 

Broadway, 
New  York, 
U.S.  A. 

